In Japan, except in some regions, eating insects is extremely rare, and it can be said that it is almost unheard of among the younger generation, especially in urban areas.

While some advocate for eating insects to prepare for food shortages, cries of "Absolutely not!" are heard, mainly on social media. Even though I work with insects, I also feel a sense of pity for them and have reservations about eating them.

That being said, the truth is that, unintentionally, Japanese people eat insects (or components extracted from them) every day. Representative examples include cochineal, which contains carminic acid produced by the cochineal insect, and shellac, which is made by heat treatment or solvent extraction of lac, produced by the lac insect.

To put it simply, cochineal is used as a pure dye in food and cosmetics, lac is used as a dye in food, and shellac is used as a wax in many applications such as adhesives, food polishing agents, wood finishes, and SP records.

Cochineal is generally safe, but it's important to be aware that in rare cases, people who regularly use cosmetics containing cochineal may experience allergic reactions.

The reason cochineal continues to be used despite containing insects is likely because safe and inexpensive artificial colorings have yet to be found.

This article will explain cochineal insects and lac insects, as well as the components they produce.

What is the difference between cochineal insects and lac insects?

First, let's clarify the differences between cochineal insects and lac insects, which are often confused.

The cochineal insect (also known as the cochineal insect), Dactylopius coccus, belongs to the family Dactylopiidae within the superfamily Coccoidea and is distributed from the southwestern United States through Mexico to the temperate regions of South America (Schowalter, 2025). It is now sometimes cultivated in China. It uses prickly pear cacti (Cactaceae) as its host, inserting its stylets into the phloem tubes (tubes that transport sugars produced by photosynthesis throughout the plant) and feeding on the phloem sap.

On the other hand, the lac insect Kerria lacca (Laccifer lacca is a synonym) is classified in the family Kerriidae within the superfamily Coccoidea and is distributed in China, South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar) (Watanabe, 2003; Takekawa, 2010; Bashir et al., 2022). Its hosts are extremely diverse, with over 400 plant species reported worldwide, but commercially, three species are used: Butea monosperma (Fabaceae), Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae), and Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). Like the lac insect, it lives by inserting its stylets into the phloem tubes and feeding on the phloem sap.

Although they both cling to plants in a similar way, cochineal insects are originally from the Americas, while lac insects are found in Eurasia. You can see that the plants they utilize and their habitats are completely different.

The components produced are also different.

Cochineal insects produce carminic acid, which is both a defensive substance and a pigment, while lac insects produce a waxy substance called lac, which contains laccaic acid as a pigment.

Why did the cochineal insect evolve to produce carminic acid?

It is believed that carminic acid was originally secreted by the cochineal insect to protect itself from carnivorous insects such as ants, ladybugs, and lacewings, as well as microorganisms (Schowalter, 2025). The defense provided by carminic acid is strong, and very few species prey on it.

However, some insects are known to still prey on cochineal insects. The larvae of the carnivorous moth Laetilia coccidivora, a member of the Pyralidae family, are known to prey on cochineal insects by spitting out a sac containing carminic acid. However, even in this case, their survival rate, development rate, and reproduction rate are significantly worse than when they feed on cochineal insects that do not contain carminic acid.

While carminic acid is merely a pigment for humans, it is actually an important component for cochineal insects.

The fact that cochineal insects themselves can turn red is thought to be due to carminic acid, and it is possible that this is an "honest signal" warning color, intended to convey "the redder, the more poisonous!" by possessing both pigment and defense properties, but this has not been thoroughly investigated. Examples of warning colors that serve as honest signals by combining pigment and antioxidant properties are well known (Blount et al., 2009).

What are the differences in the uses of cochineal lac and shellac?

Cochineal insects are killed with boiling water and dried to produce "black cochineal," and crushing black cochineal yields "cochineal," which contains carminic acid. For dyeing purposes, carminic acid is further chemically reacted to synthesize "carmine" (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Schowalter, 2025).

On the other hand, the lac produced by the lac insect initially clumps together on the branches of the host plant, but the lac removed from the branch is called "stick lac" (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). This stick lac can be washed and dried to produce what is called "seed lac," and further heat treatment or solvent extraction can produce "shellac," a pure wax that does not contain insect remains and has reduced or eliminated laccaic acid.

It's important to note that rack and shellac are different things.

How do these ultimately produced ingredients differ in their uses?

To put it simply, cochineal is used as a pure dye in food and cosmetics, lac is used as a dye in food, and shellac is used as a wax in many applications such as adhesives, food polishing agents, wood finishes, and SP records.

Because cochineal produces a vibrant red color, it was originally used for dyeing cloth, and there are records of its use in Central and South America from at least 600 AD (Schowalter, 2025). When Columbus visited the Americas during the Age of Discovery, it was highly valued by European nobility because of its superior strength and durability compared to older dyes, and it eventually became inexpensive and spread throughout the world. It was also introduced to Japan through trade with the West during the Momoyama and Edo periods, and was used by Sengoku warlords (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). However, with the advent of aniline dyes, its use for dyeing cloth declined, and other uses were developed.

In Japan today, cochineal is used as a food coloring agent in soft drinks, strawberry milk, alcohol, shaved ice syrup, confectionery, ham, sausages, and fish cakes, as well as in cosmetics such as lipstick, lip balm, blush, eyeshadow, and nail polish, and in art supplies. Note that in Japan, the cochineal used in food products is carminic acid, while in cosmetics it is carmine (Inomata, 2025).

Lac still contains a lot of laccaic acid, so it is used as a fabric dye and is known as lac dyeing (purple mineral dyeing) (Takekawa, 2010). Around 2000 BC, it was used in China and India as a dye and as a medicine called myrrh (traditional Chinese medicine). It had already been introduced to Japan during the Nara period and has been found in the Shōsōin Treasury (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). However, its use declined with the advent of aniline dyes and Western medicine.

In modern Japan, lac is added to food products and used to color sweets, bean paste, bacon, sausages, noodles, processed seafood, and jams.

Shellac was originally used as a finishing material because of its excellent properties for protecting and polishing wood. However, in the early 20th century, the developing electrical industry recognized its excellent properties as an electrical insulator, leading to increased demand. However, in 1907, when American Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite as a substitute, its use in that application declined (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003).

However, shellac's other uses have expanded in many directions, and in Japan today it is used in countless ways, including paints, adhesives, varnishes for stringed instruments and wooden furniture, granular chocolates and gums that don't stain hands, pharmaceutical tablets, a coating agent for roasted chestnuts, and SP records (Takekawa, 2010).

These insects have truly been supporting society from ancient times to the present day, constantly changing their form along the way.

Do Japanese people really eat cochineal insects? From the cultivation of cochineal insects to their eventual appearance on the dinner table as a food coloring agent.

Some people might wonder, "Do Japanese people actually eat cochineal insects?"

In other words, regardless of whether cochineal is used, the point is that it's merely an extracted chemical component, and not the cochineal insect itself. (Some people might find that off-putting, though...)

Unfortunately (?), we can proudly say that the Japanese eat scale insects (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Schowalter, 2025).

Cochineal insects harvested from prickly pear cacti are killed by soaking them in hot water or exposing them to sunlight or heat, and then dried for preservation until they reach approximately 301 TP3T of their raw weight. This is "black cochineal."

The powder produced by crushing black cochineal is called "cochineal." Approximately 70,000 insects are needed to produce one pound (0.45 kilograms) of cochineal dye (Miller, 2022).

When cochineal is boiled in ammonia water or sodium carbonate solution and alum is added, a red aluminum carminate precipitate forms. This aluminum carminate is "carmine."

Furthermore, by adding other ingredients such as tin chloride, citric acid, borax, and lime, you can create a variety of colors ranging from pink to purple.

In other words, it's almost certain that whole insects are being crushed and then applied to or incorporated into food and cosmetics.

On the other hand, while lac insect lacs also contain insect bodies, shellac consists almost entirely of its chemical components.

Are cochineal scale insects disgusting?

Whether or not cochineal insects are considered disgusting is, of course, subjective, but there are several factors that contribute to that perception.

First, scale insects typically infest leaves in dense clusters and produce a cottony waxy substance. This is thought to protect against moisture loss, excessive sunlight exposure, and predators such as ants, but it is what makes the leaves look unsightly.

Furthermore, in order to excrete the excess sugar absorbed through the phloem (and also as a reward for ants guarding them), the plant "urinates" (diabetes), which gets on the leaves, creating a sticky, viscous substance, and weakening the plant itself, resulting in an even dirtier appearance.

But eccentric people like me think, "It's so small and cute!"

Furthermore, you could say that it's thanks to scale insects that you can put on makeup while enjoying red drinks and sweets like macarons, and then take and post sparkling, "Instagrammable" photos on social media like Instagram.

Therefore, rather than simply dismissing them as "disgusting," I think it's not a bad idea to show gratitude and respect to those who provide us with food. It's certainly not a pleasant experience for the cochineal insects themselves, who are the ones being eaten. (Although, there's also the perspective that they are being bred and thus the species is surviving as a result.)

While it may evoke a physiological aversion, insects and cosmetics are surprisingly closely related, as evidenced by the use of galls (five-grain galls, sumac ear galls) of the sumac aphid Schlechtendalia chinensis for teeth blackening in Japanese history (Ezure et al., 1987).

What are the dangers of cochineal? Does it cause allergies?

However, there is also the practical problem of cochineal insects: the existence of allergies (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Inomata, 2025).

There are multiple patterns of cochineal allergies.

The first type is occupational inhalation exposure, where workers who are routinely exposed to cochineal dye or carmine through inhalation, such as those engaged in extracting dye from cochineal insects or handling carmine in cosmetics factories, develop allergies.

The second type is those who exhibit skin symptoms caused by cosmetics containing cochineal.

The third type is caused by oral ingestion of foods containing cochineal.

The worst-case scenario is a combination of the second and third types, where applying cosmetics containing cochineal to the face causes the immune system to mistakenly perceive the cosmetic as a "foreign substance that attacks the human body!" and memorize its molecular structure (immunological memory). The next time food containing cochineal is consumed, the immune system overreacts and attacks the body itself. This is called "anaphylactic shock."

Many researchers believe that the cause of this reaction is not carmine from cochineal, but rather residual proteins derived from the body fluids of the cochineal insect that are involved in the manifestation of IgE-mediated allergic symptoms. However, there are also reports of reactions to carmine, so there are various theories.

It is believed that this system originally evolved to react to parasites (Palm et al, 2012). In other words, if a protein is the cause, then this can be rephrased as a reaction that occurs because our bodies mistakenly identify cosmetics containing cochineal insect fluid as "parasites!"

While this may sound quite frightening, despite its widespread use, only 22 cases have been reported in Japan since it began to be documented in academic papers in Japan until 2018, and there have been no deaths (Takeo et al., 2018).

However, it's possible that the lack of awareness is the reason why this condition is occurring more frequently than it actually is, so if you feel anything unusual, be sure to consult a doctor.

Why is cochineal still being used?

Why is cochineal, which is considered "disgusting" and potentially causes allergic reactions, still being used?

In fact, there was a period when artificial red coloring was used, but from around the 1970s, reports on the relationship between coloring and hyperactivity in children, as well as cell and animal studies suggesting that certain dyes may increase the risk of cancer, began to emerge, and health concerns about these synthetic dyes started to grow (Miller, 2022).

These concerns ultimately led to the banning of some dyes, such as Red No. 2 and Red No. 4. However, some of these harmful effects were later revoked.

As a result, naturally derived colorants such as carminic acid have begun to gain popularity.

Natural colorants have a very long history, which can be considered to guarantee their safety to some extent. Furthermore, because the manufacturing process is already established, it is possible to produce them at a lower cost, both in terms of time and money.

However, in addition to the reasons mentioned above, there is a growing number of vegans, vegetarians, and animal rights activists in the United States who do not want to accidentally consume insect-derived products.

Furthermore, using large quantities of prickly pear cacti does not necessarily result in good production efficiency.

Therefore, methods for artificial synthesis are being researched, but practical application is still some time away.

References

Akiyama, Hiroshi & Sugimoto, Naoki. 2014. Food allergies caused by cochineal dye and carmine intake. Pharmacia 50(6): 522-527. https://doi.org/10.14894/faruawpsj.50.6_522

Bashir, NH, Chen, H., Munir, S., Wang, W., Chen, H., Sima, YK, & An, J. 2022. Unraveling the role of lac insects in providing natural industrial products. Insects 13(12): 1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13121117

Blount, JD, Speed, MP, Ruxton, GD, & Stephens, PA 2009. Warning displays may function as honest signals of toxicity. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276(1658): 871-877. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1407

Ezure, T., Katsura, K., Ten, M., Taguchi, H., Ikeda, M., Matsuzaki, A., & Suzuki, T. 1987. Concept and Case Reports of Ohaguro (Teeth Blackening). Iwate Medical University Dental Journal 12(2): 217-221. https://doi.org/10.20663/iwateshigakukaishi.12.2_217

Inomata, Naoko. 2025. Cochineal dye allergy. Allergy 74(3): 174-176. https://doi.org/10.15036/arerugi.74.174

Le Couteur, PC, & Burreson, J. 2003. Napoleon's buttons: How 17 molecules changed history. Tarcher, 384pp. ISBN: 9781585422203 [=2011. Spices, explosives, pharmaceuticals—17 chemical substances that changed world history. Chuokoron-Shinsha, Tokyo. 368pp. ISBN: 9784120043079]

Miller, BJ 2022. Cochineal, a red dye from bugs, moves to the lab. Knowable Magazine. ISSN: 2575-4459, https://doi.org/10.1146/knowable-032522-1

Palm, NW, Rosenstein, RK, & Medzhitov, R. 2012. Allergic host defences. Nature 484(7395): 465-472. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11047

Schowalter, TD 2025. Ecology, use, and management of cochineal insects (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae). Journal of Integrated Pest Management 16(1): pmaf033. https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmaf033

Takekawa, Yukiko. 2010. The Use of Shellac, a Natural Resinous Substance: Focusing on Shōsōin Treasures and Medicinal Properties. Osaka Science Museum Research Report 20: 65-70. https://www.sci-museum.jp/wp-content/themes/scimuseum2021/pdf/study/research/2010/pb20_065-070.pdf

Takeo, N., Nakamura, M., Nakayama, S., Okamoto, O., Sugimoto, N., Sugiura, S., … & Matsunaga, K. 2018. Cochineal dye-induced immediate allergy: review of Japanese cases and proposed new diagnostic chart. Allergology International 67(4): 496-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2018.02.012

Toko, Yukiko & Komashiro, Motoko. 2007. Natural red dyes. Journal of Life Engineering Research 9(1): 136-139. http://hdl.handle.net/10083/3267

Watanabe, Hiroyuki. 2003. Scale insects save tropical forests. Tokai University Press, Hadano. 136pp. ISBN: 9784486016182

I originally have a science background, but I enjoy reading world history content.

I've heard something that caught my attention. It's the theory that spices (spices excluding the stems, leaves, and flowers) don't have much antibacterial property, and that "spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat." I've always been skeptical about whether this is true.

Our investigation has concluded that this theory is highly unfounded. The reason is that spices are too expensive for ordinary people to use.

The medicinal properties of spices themselves are diverse, including antibacterial, antioxidant, appetite-stimulating, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the reason why wealthy people in Europe and America sought out spices from abroad during the Age of Discovery was likely for their exotic flavors and because they stimulated the secretion of addictive neurotransmitters (brain hormones) in the brain.

Ultimately, this develops into conspicuous consumption among the wealthy in Europe and America (consumption to flaunt wealth).

However, it is becoming clear that some spices can actually be used to mask the characteristic fishy smell, so they are not spoiled, but it is true that some spices can be used to eliminate fishy odors.

Another theory suggests that the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of spices, which enhance their preservation, were important. This is an explanation that you sometimes see in high school world history classes.

While it is true that spices have antibacterial properties, it is unlikely that there was a demand for them in Europe and America during the Age of Discovery. On the other hand, antibacterial properties were likely important in their places of origin.

This article will explain why the idea that spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat is false, and the real reason why European countries sought spices during the Age of Discovery.

What are the differences between Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum), Chinese pepper (Zanthoxylum sibiricum), and Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum ailanthoides)? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! What are their uses? What insects visit the flowers? Birds apparently love the seeds because they don't find them spicy!?

Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum), Japanese sansho, and Japanese sansho are common species in Japan, and Japanese pepper in particular remains an essential ingredient in cooking today. All belong to the genus Zanthoxylum in the Rutaceae family, and are very similar in that they have many thorns all over the plant and odd-pinnately compound leaves consisting of an odd number of leaflets. Japanese pepper has a distinctive aroma...

ecological-information.com

What's the difference between dill (yin-dill) and fennel (foeniculum vulgare)? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Dill and fennel both belong to the Apiaceae family, share a strong aroma throughout the plant, and are used both as herbs (leaves) and spices (fruits). Their leaves, in particular, are known as "fish herbs" and pair exceptionally well with fish dishes. Furthermore, they are also similar in morphology...

ecological-information.com

Why can we say that the theory that spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat during the Age of Discovery is false?

Why is the claim that "spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat" considered to have little basis in fact?

The biggest problem is that spices from the Age of Discovery were too expensive (Murphy, 2024).

Europe already had an abundance of native herbs used in cooking, such as sage, rosemary, and thyme, as well as strongly flavored vegetables like leeks and onions. However, "spices" (such as pepper, nutmeg, and cloves) could only be imported through the spice trade from the Middle East and Asia.

Exotic spices, popularized by returning Crusaders and pilgrims, were already in vogue as highly prized luxuries among the upper classes in the Middle Ages, even before the Age of Discovery. However, their relative rarity, prestige, and the long distances it took to reach tables in France and England made them extremely expensive. They were simply unaffordable for ordinary households.

Furthermore, most households could quickly slaughter and eat animals by raising livestock or fish, hunting, or commissioning these activities. Examples of livestock included geese, ducks, chickens, pigs, and sheep.

In addition, if you have any leftovers, there are preservation methods such as salting, smoking, drying, and honey-preserving. Jerky and ham are examples of this.

From the above, it can be concluded that medieval Europeans did not deliberately eat rotten meat.

However, it has been confirmed that essential oils extracted from the fruit (fennel seeds) of fennel (a type of spice native to the Mediterranean coast) and the kernels of nutmeg seeds (native to Southeast Asia) can actually eliminate the odor of meat and fish (Takahashi et al., 2004).

Therefore, while it remains possible that native European plants like fennel were used to remove animal or fishy odors, it's unlikely to be the smell of rotting meat.

Why did the misinformation spread?

Why did this claim circulate? An influential book is involved (Myers, 2006).

In 1939, J.C. Drummond and Anne Wilbraham published "The Englishman's Food: Five Centuries of English Diet," in which they suggested that the wealthy in medieval Europe (and cunning bakers and grocery shop owners) desperately needed spices, primarily because meat was starting to spoil and the spices masked the smell and flavor of stale ingredients.

However, Drummond was a biochemist, not an expert in medieval food culture. Furthermore, he assumed from the outset that medieval preservation techniques were rudimentary and that "the main purpose of spices was to mask flavors." His work lacked documentary evidence and relied heavily on misinterpretations and speculation.

However, the readability of his writing, combined with the authority he gained from his social standing, gave his books weight and made them an ideal reference for anyone wanting to casually research the history of food.

This theory, like a rumor spreading, created a chain of mentions where inaccurate information was repeated as if it were the truth.

Worst of all, the speaker heard the same inaccurate information from multiple sources, but failed to realize that it all stemmed from a single source, creating the misconception that this theory was the dominant one.

What was the real reason Europe sought spices from abroad during the Age of Discovery?

So what was the reason for seeking spices during the Age of Discovery (mid-15th to mid-17th centuries)?

The primary reason is probably that it's a "delicacy" and has an exotic taste.

This might seem a bit simplistic, but the tendency for wealthy people to become gourmets in search of new flavors and seek out rare ingredients is still observed today.

If it were simply delicious, that would be the end of it, but for example, although it is native to Central and South America, the capsaicin contained in the fruit of the chili pepper is known to stimulate the secretion of beta-endorphins and dopamine, which are types of neurotransmitters (brain hormones) in the brain and are also called brain narcotics, due to its spiciness (pain) (Fattori et al., 2016).

This can have an effect that, while not pathological, could be described as addiction.

Other examples of spices affecting brain hormones, although primarily based on animal studies, include the following:

These effects likely contributed to a stronger craving for spices (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003=2011).

As trade further developed and spices became even more expensive, the use of spices evolved into a way for the wealthy in Europe and America to flaunt their wealth and demonstrate that they could afford to use expensive spices on a daily basis (Freedman, 2005).

This corresponds to what is called "constancy consumption" in economics. This is not merely "showing off," but has been theorized in evolutionary biology as "handicap theory," and is known as an important motivation for consumption in humans (Miller, 2009=2017).

As described above, the reasons for seeking spices during the Age of Discovery likely evolved from the pursuit of delicacies to addiction and then to conspicuous consumption.

The reason Europe went to the trouble of obtaining spices by sea was that in the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire destroyed the Byzantine Empire and expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean, imposing extremely high tariffs. As a result, the supply of spices that had originally come in through the Eastern trade (Levant trade) between Islamic Qalimi merchants and Italian merchants in Venice was cut off.

As a result, the Portuguese and Spanish efforts to find spices unaffected by the Islamic world spread to the imperialist powers of the Netherlands, Britain, France, Germany, America, Italy, and Belgium, leading to colonial rule by Western powers around the world.

Is the antibacterial properties of spices related to the demand for spices?

However, and this is a bit complicated, while the reasons why Europeans and Americans sought spices during the Age of Discovery can be attributed to the pursuit of delicacies, their addictive nature, and their conspicuous consumption, the reasons why the indigenous people of those colonies used spices are likely different.

For the local people, unlike Westerners, spices grew naturally, were inexpensive, and were deeply integrated into their customs and food culture.

While taste and addictive properties are certainly contributing factors, the reasons for its long-term integration into the culture likely include its lipid-derived antioxidant, antibacterial, insecticidal, and animal-repellent properties, as well as its appetite-stimulating, anti-inflammatory, and odor-masking effects (Gottardi et al., 2016). Furthermore, although scientific proof is still lacking, it was also expected to play a role as a herbal medicine for specific organs.

In particular, antioxidant and antibacterial properties are thought to have been important for improving the preservation of food and for embalming corpses. Antibacterial properties have been proven in 99 major spices, including pepper, chili peppers, cloves, nutmeg, and sansho pepper.

Such antibacterial effects may not have been particularly valued in the European and American countries during the Age of Discovery.

However, as Dutch-Asian trade progressed from the 17th to the 18th centuries, and as a result of the expansion of trade and competition among merchants and companies, the prices of many commodities began to converge between regions. Colonial goods such as spices, tea, and sugar also spread to the general households in Europe and America (De Zwart, 2016), and became commonly consumed by ordinary households.

In Japan, after the Meiji Restoration (1853), spices originating from South America, such as chili peppers, were added to the existing Asian spices.

At this stage, some people may have started to become aware of its antibacterial properties and health benefits.

Since then, scientific research has advanced, proving that it actually has functions such as antibacterial properties and health benefits, and it has once again attracted attention.

Thus, the role of spices has changed in complex ways depending on the region and era. While the theory that spices were consumed for their odor-masking or antibacterial properties during the "Age of Discovery" is rather weak, it's important to note that spices themselves do have those effects.

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Xu, J., Xu, H., Liu, Y., He, H., & Li, G. 2015. Vanillin-induced amelioration of depression-like behaviors in rats by modulating monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain. Psychiatry Research 225(3): 509-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.056

In short, Adlerian psychology can be described as "a psychology that fosters the ability to live in cooperation with others (community feeling) by choosing one's own life (self-determination), acting in accordance with one's purpose (teleology), and letting go of unnecessary control over others (separation of tasks)."

However, his psychology is buried among many self-help books, and many people may find it somewhat dubious. In fact, even in later generations, his ideas tend to be forgotten and are not quoted even when he says the same things.

Indeed, Adler's ideas are based more on a synthesization of his own clinical experience than on a series of scientific verifications. Furthermore, they address not only facts but also themes beyond the realm of science, such as "how should one live?", and thus have aspects that are closer to philosophy. In that sense, some argue that it is not science.

This article will examine the extent to which Adlerian fundamental factual concepts are accepted in evolutionary biology, psychology, behavioral economics, neuroscience, and brain science. It is based on Miller & Dillman (2016), with additional papers added. Citations of papers mentioned in Miller & Dillman (2016) will be omitted.

In conclusion, the general direction is the same, but there are some differences in our views on conflict and free will.

About Adler and Adlerian psychology

Alfred Adler was a psychologist born in 1870 and died in 1937. The mainstream of psychology during his time was based on the idea that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, traumas, and physiological factors)."

For example, Freud emphasized "unconscious desires" and "sexual impulses" as causes. Psychiatry, too, followed a style of "recording symptoms and classifying cause and effect," essentially relying on "accumulating facts." As Adler interacted with patients as a physician, he began to have serious doubts about this "causal explanationism." This is what is called "causal theory."

Adler began to question this. In his youth, he started as an ophthalmologist and internist, treating many patients with lung diseases and tuberculosis. One day, he noticed that even with the same disease, the degree of recovery varied greatly from patient to patient. "Why is it that only those with a 'will to live' recover, even though they have the same disease?" The realization that this could not be explained by mere "physical differences" became Adler's first turning point. In other words, the idea began to take root in him that "people are not passive beings, but rather choose their own way of life." This is what is called "teleology."

After becoming a psychiatrist, Adler developed this idea, applying it to emotions and behavior as well. He parted ways with Freud and founded what is now known as Adlerian psychology, or "individual psychology."

Adlerian psychology is remarkably progressive in that it emphasizes one's own life and individuality, while advocating for exploring connections with society by utilizing one's abilities. I believe it is a very important field of psychology and philosophy, alongside the early Buddhism of Gautama Siddhartha (Buddha/Shakyamuni) in northern India in the 6th century BC, and the Stoic philosophy that began with Zeno in ancient Greece in the early 3rd century BC and spread throughout ancient Greece and Rome, as it helps to let go of the Western notion of pursuing only individual happiness and the extreme Japanese notion of "the nail that sticks out gets hammered down."

Is there any scientific basis for the concept of "community feeling"?

One of the core beliefs in Adlerian psychology is the idea that individuals have an innate capacity for social concern.

In Adlerian psychology, this is called "social interest," and it represents the feeling of being a part of society—whether family, community, or workplace—and the desire to connect with others and contribute. This can range from a family-centered perspective to a global one.

In short, Adlerian psychology argues that this lack of a sense of community—that is, the lack of the feeling that "I am contributing to communities on various scales"—is largely related to feelings of anxiety, unhappiness, isolation, inferiority complexes, and self-centered behavior.

Has research in neuroscience also shown that a sense of community is important?

This view aligns with many neurobiological perspectives on happiness, as stated in the textbook "A Counselor's Introduction to Neuroscience" (McHenry et al., 2014), and several studies suggest that expressing compassion and kindness may enhance relationships and mental and physical health (Fredrickson et al., 2013; Poulin & Holman, 2013).

Oxytocin is a hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted from the posterior pituitary gland. It is also known as the "love hormone" and is released when we feel social connection or when we care for someone.

Oxytocin is thought to be the source of feelings of happiness that come from having a sense of community, but it has also been found that the secretion of oxytocin does more than that; it also repairs physiological damage induced by stress.

A study by Poulin & Holman (2013) found that people who engaged in prosocial behavior had higher levels of endogenous oxytocin and fewer negative symptoms of stress. The authors suggest that prosocial behavior may be a way for people to stimulate the release of oxytocin and mitigate the negative effects of stress, demonstrating that oxytocin mitigates the adverse health effects of stress.

Another study by Fredrickson et al. (2013) reported that individuals who reported having a higher purpose, being connected to their community, and serving others had lower levels of inflammatory markers, while those who reported more hedonic experiences had elevated levels of pro-inflammatory genes and decreased levels of antiviral response.

Aristotle distinguished between "hedonia," which is happiness that pursues short-term pleasures such as enjoyment, satisfaction, and positive emotions, and "eudaimonia," which is happiness that comes from finding meaning and purpose in life and achieving long-term rather than short-term fulfillment. Here, however, it is interpreted that those who found eudaimonia in a social context were healthier.

These findings suggest, from a physiological and neurological perspective, that having a strong sense of community and contributing to the happiness of others has significant benefits for one's own mental stability and physical health.

Adler also referred to Darwin's theory of evolution, arguing that while other animals evolved physical strength, humans adapted to their environment by forming social groups, and that this is connected to the importance of having a sense of community (Adler & Iwai, 2024).

This idea is also proposed in the form of the social brain hypothesis from the perspective of current evolutionary biology, and can be said to be largely correct (Pedersen et al., 2014; Dunbar, 2024).

Is there any scientific basis for "Adlerian interpersonal relationships"?

Adlerian interpersonal relationships emphasize the separation of tasks (clearly defining one's own responsibilities and those of others, focusing on one's own tasks, and refraining from interfering with others' tasks until requested), rejecting "vertical relationships" (hierarchical relationships) and emphasizing "horizontal relationships" (equal relationships). Encouragement (giving people facing difficulties the energy to overcome them and the confidence that they can do it) is also recommended.

This is somewhat similar to "assertiveness" (self-assertion that respects oneself and others), which originated in behavioral therapy in modern times.

Assertiveness is a communication method and attitude that respects oneself and others, and expresses one's opinions, requests, and feelings frankly, honestly, and on an equal footing. It is consistent with Adlerian interpersonal relationships in that it recommends direct language (a rejection of the "culture of unspoken understanding") and emphasizes equality.

While Adlerian interpersonal relationships themselves lack sufficient scientific validation, several studies have shown that assertiveness can reduce anxiety, stress, and depression (Cantero-Sánchez, 2021; ElBarazi et al., 2024).

Similar ideas are prominent in early Buddhism, Stoic philosophy, and early Christianity, emphasizing the importance of protecting oneself while also showing compassion and respect for others within the community (Bazzano, 2005; Goerger, 2017; Case, 2024).

Is there scientific evidence for the "uniqueness of early childhood experiences"?

Adlerian psychology considers early childhood experiences to be extremely important for the overall development of an individual's view of themselves, others, and the world (Adler, 1956).

Adler (1956) argued that while individuals are born with certain tendencies, the manifestation of specific traits and talents is caused by the community (the surrounding environment).

In other words, this can be rephrased as the idea that "childhood experiences are qualitatively more important than adult experiences and are deeply involved in establishing one's 'lifestyle'."

In Adlerian psychology, "lifestyle" refers to an individual's unique "unconscious blueprint" for living their life, which is a fusion of childhood experiences and the need for belonging. It consists of three elements: self-concept (I am...), worldview (the world is...), and self-ideal (I want to be...).

Therefore, counselors in the Adlerian psychology school try to understand a person's inner world by deeply examining their family structure, including cultural and familial values, expectations of gender roles, the nature of relationships within their birth family, and their psychological birth order.

What about from a neuroscience perspective?

Current brain development models suggest that early childhood experiences have a significant impact on an individual's awareness of themselves, others, and the world, and are thought to complement Adler's view on early childhood experiences (Andersen et al., 2008; McHenry et al., 2014; Perry, 2009; Siegel, 2012).

Brain development begins in the brainstem in the womb and progresses to the prefrontal cortex in early adulthood. Neurologists believe that the fundamental structures related to the brain's regulatory circuits, a key element in discussions of mental health, are primarily formed during the first five years of life (Andersen et al., 2008; Perry, 2009).

In this process, children often internalize the neural circuits of their closest caregivers during their early childhood. While individuals are born with certain genetic predispositions, environmental experiences significantly influence which genetic predispositions are expressed or suppressed through a process called "epigenetics" (Garrett, 2011; Siegel, 2012).

Epigenetics is a mechanism that controls gene function (expression) without changing the DNA base sequence itself. Beginners in biology or those who still hold onto outdated biological ideas tend to think that "behavior is rigidly determined by genes, although there are environmental constraints." However, current biology has proven that, through the action of epigenetics, "individuals have the potential to be either way, and specific genes can be expressed depending on the environment, leading to certain behaviors."

In other words, not only are directly inherited genes involved, but also the environment during childhood, which can influence genetic expression and have both positive and negative effects later in life.

For example, Fallon (2013) examined individuals who engaged in violent psychopathological behavior using brain scans. They found that the participants shared similar neural activity profiles and patterns, specifically "decreased brain function in certain parts of the frontal and temporal lobes, areas generally associated with self-control and empathy."

Up to this point, it could be said that the person has lost their sense of community due to a brain abnormality. In a sense, this is normal.

However, further investigation suggests that some individuals, due to poor upbringing environments, may exhibit neurological activity profiles similar to those of individuals with psychopathic tendencies, even without showing high levels of aggression or low levels of empathy.

In other words, as Adler hypothesized, this suggests the possibility that early childhood experiences influence genetic predispositions.

This is very close to the reality when you consider cases where children born in slums commit crimes or join gangs without realizing it, influenced by their parents and those around them, or cases where children of toxic parents become toxic parents themselves.

Furthermore, Adler's ideas closely align with another psychological concept, "attachment theory," to the point that it's almost a rephrasing of it.

Attachment theory, proposed by psychologist John Bowlby in his research from the 1960s to the 1970s, is a theory that states that the emotional bonds (attachment) that people form with others have a significant impact on their mental health and interpersonal relationships.

Attachment theory was groundbreaking in that it demonstrated that the mother-child relationship, as explained by Freud, is not established through the child learning that "she is the one who breastfed me (satisfaction of need)," but rather through an instinctive and innate mechanism by which the child seeks out their parent, similar to other monkeys.

However, this theory was completed not by directly referencing Adler's earlier work, but by drawing on clinical observations, comparative studies, and references to animal behavior.

Although this attachment theory is old, it is still widely accepted today, and many neuroscientists have shown that attachment is internalized as tacit memory, and that secure attachment is associated with neural structures that promote emotion regulation, fear regulation, harmony, insight, self-understanding, empathy, and morality (Schore & Schore, 2008; Siegel, 2012), while insecure attachment is associated with decreased emotional and social intelligence, executive function, and stress regulation (Perry, 2009).

As described above, Adler's ideas, which emphasized childhood experiences, are still supported today, albeit with some changes in terminology.

Are "teleology" and "the lies of life" correct?

Teleology, in contrast to causalism which states that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, trauma, or physiological factors)," is the idea that "people choose their actions and emotions in the present in order to achieve some purpose, and the past causes cited are merely conveniently brought into play to suit that purpose."

This is a point that is often misunderstood because it is only written to this extent in textbooks, but even so, Adler did not deny that genes and the past are the cause of the current situation (Adler and Iwai, 2024).

However, I'm saying that the choice of the cause is ultimately up to the individual.

We often hear people say, "I can't get married because I don't have money and I'm not good-looking," but considering the counterexample of many people around the world who are married despite not having money or good looks, it's clear that even if there is a tendency for this to be the sole cause, it's wrong to attribute it to that. Nevertheless, this kind of expression is often seen.

While abuse can be a cause of delinquency, some people who experience it go on to achieve great success without resorting to crime.

Adler argues that we can choose whether to move in a constructive or unconstructive direction. Adler called the act of not taking action by making plausible excuses a "life lie."

I believe the validity of teleology and the concept of lies in life, that is, the error of causal theory itself, can be easily proven by simply providing exceptions.

So why does the brain make excuses and tell "lies about life" when it should actually be taking action?

In modern terms, this can be seen as "self-deception" (a psychological process in which one deceives oneself to justify or ignore one's own conscience or the truth, even though one knows it) in order to resolve "cognitive dissonance" (psychological discomfort arising from the simultaneous existence of contradictory thoughts or actions in one's mind) in response to "procrastination" behavior caused by "anxiety."

While humans can certainly achieve happiness and survival by maintaining the status quo and avoiding harm or potential threats, maintaining the status quo can also lead to negative consequences (Yamamori et al., 2023).

For example, when going through a job interview, you need to weigh the benefit of getting a new job against the risk of failing or experiencing embarrassment during the interview. While turning down one interview may have little impact on your life, habitually avoiding all job interviews will clearly lead to problems in the long run.

Consistently avoiding long-term benefits for the sake of short-term risks is called "procrastination" in psychology and "present bias" in behavioral economics. As the total of the lost rewards that could have been obtained through diligent effort accumulates, it has an increasingly negative impact, ultimately leading to missing out on important things in life.

Evolutionary biology and behavioral economics have pointed out that this is because humans tend to underestimate future benefits of survival, which are uncertain in the course of evolution (time discounting), and overestimate the risks they may face in the present (Rogers, 1994; Tomono, 2006).

Furthermore, neuroscientifically speaking, mouse experiments have shown that this anxiety process involves excessive strengthening of the connections between the hippocampus/amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (excessive theta wave synchronization), leading to overactivity of interneurons such as VIP ⁺ neurons, PV ⁺ neurons, and SST ⁺ neurons (Mack et al, 2023).

In other words, evolutionarily, the control system of the prefrontal cortex is overly active, making one more susceptible to anxiety. This leads to overestimating current failures and risks (punishments) over future rewards (things one wants to do), causing procrastination. However, because one also understands the downsides, cognitive dissonance occurs, and to resolve this, one resorts to self-deception by telling "lies about life."

In ancient times, when uncertainty was high and death was imminent, this could be considered a highly adaptive evolutionary trait, as it encouraged cautious behavior and promoted the maintenance of the status quo. However, in modern times, where technology has advanced and the risks of action have decreased, it can no longer be considered adaptive (Rogers, 1994; Rasmussen & Dover, 2006; Villmoare et al., 2024).

Early Buddhism and Stoic philosophy also warn against overestimating risks due to "delusions" and "attachments" (Ding et al., 2023). The same is true for early Christianity.

Is there a right way to have courage?

Adler states that "courage" is necessary to overcome "life's lies."

In Adlerian psychology, "courage" refers to the very "vitality" and "motivation" to overcome difficulties and challenges and to take positive action when faced with them.

Adler didn't actually list methods for summoning courage, but based on his intent, the following methods can be considered:

1. Start with small actions
2. Reducing unnecessary anxiety by separating issues
3. Using feelings of inferiority as motivation for growth
4. Be mindful of contributing to others
5. Strengthening self-determination

Of these, the idea of "starting with small actions" is now called "Small Wins" and was rediscovered by Weick (1984).

Small wins are small, achievable successes accumulated day by day towards achieving a larger goal. Weick argues that by breaking down large, complex problems into "small, attainable parts" and accumulating small wins, momentum and support can be gained, making change more likely.

For example, if you're studying, it could be something like memorizing vocabulary for just 10 minutes a day.

This leads to a sense of self-efficacy through achievement, creating a positive cycle of hope, belief, optimism, and confidence, as well as providing feedback for better strategies through learning through practice (Termeer & Dewulf, 2019).

The importance of "just trying something, even if it's small, rather than thinking about a big plan" is still strongly supported today. Agile development, a software development methodology, is one example of this.

On the other hand, there is insufficient research to determine whether separating issues truly leads to anxiety reduction, but it intuitively seems correct.

The idea of separating tasks is almost identical to the concept expressed in Stoic philosophy (Delaney, 2023).

Are there any flaws in Adlerian psychology?

I think there are two main differences between Adlerian psychology and modern thinking.

Is it true that there is no conflict?

First, let's consider the concept of conflict. Adlerian psychology does not recognize conflict between consciousness and the unconscious. This is called holism.

This rejects the idea of "fighting against one's inner self," instead positing that internal conflict exists to achieve one's goals.

This interpretation is not very common in modern times; for example, in evolutionary psychology, the mind is often explained not as a unified entity but as being composed of separate parts (modules) divided according to their purpose. This is also recently referred to as domain specificity (Oda & Otsubo, 2023).

Another example is the "elephant and mahout" metaphor, proposed by Jonathan Haidt, a social psychologist famous for positive psychology (Haidt, 2006). The "elephant and mahout" metaphor is also used in the early Buddhist scripture , the Dhammapada.

"Elephant" refers to the part of the mind that is separate from consciousness and is involved in reactions to stimuli and the formation of motivations through pleasure and displeasure, while "elephant handler" refers to the part that deals with consciousness, language, and rational long-term judgment.

The idea is that the elephant's behavior is a result of the evolutionarily more primitive development of the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, midbrain, and diencephalon, and that these are the main players, while the elephant handler, represented by the cerebral cortex, plays a supporting role, only able to slightly control the direction. In reality, conflicts between different parts of the cerebral cortex are also possible.

However, this is a matter of interpretation. There is no doubt that the elephant and the mahout work together towards some direction (purpose), and I believe that taking a holistic view of life is beneficial in that it prevents unconstructive thinking such as "I suffered again today because of the elephant," and even if the mahout's role is small, it allows us to positively receive messages from different parts of the brain.

Does free will exist?

Next, Adlerian psychology is based on the premise that free will exists. Therefore, it believes that individuals can choose better, more constructive actions for themselves.

On the other hand, in modern times, the prevailing view is the absence of free will (determinism), which holds that all human psychology and behavior are determined by a combination of environmental and genetic factors.

While it might be possible to have a deep philosophical discussion about this, it seems that Adler wasn't interested in such philosophical debates, but rather in assuming the existence of free will and encouraging efforts to change the future.

In psychology, several studies have shown that experimentally giving participants anti-free will messages leads to increased cheating, increased aggression, decreased willingness to help, decreased readiness for exercise, and decreased self-control. While recent meta-analyses have suggested that this has a low impact (Genschow et al., 2023), it may be possible in limited situations.

Fundamentally, accurate prediction of the future is impossible because its initial conditions are unknown, and since it is undetermined, the fact that the future can be changed through learning remains unchanged even if free will does not exist.

Finally, it's important to note that Adler's arguments are about 100 years old, and therefore lack a comprehensive model of early childhood development, meaning they cannot fully explain all aspects of life by modern standards (Miller & Dillman, 2016).

References

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Genschow, O., Cracco, E., Schneider, J., Protzko, J., Wisniewski, D., Brass, M., & Schooler, JW 2023. Manipulating belief in free will and its downstream consequences: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 27(1): 52-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683221087527

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When you take up listening to music, singing, or dancing as hobbies, you naturally become interested in rhythm and time signatures.

However, if we consider its origins, there are many aspects that we cannot answer. We often find ourselves moving to rhythms so naturally that we don't even question it, but this ability is actually very limited among living organisms, and it's fair to say that the ability to predict rhythm is unique to humans.

While there's no definitive answer as to the root cause of why that rhythm feels pleasant, one theory suggests that "walking" is deeply involved, and that it's also the origin of 2/4 and 4/4 time signatures. However, the concept of time signatures based on proper music theory itself only emerged in late medieval Europe with the birth of Baroque music.

The triple meter is considered unique and became widely used in 16th-century Austrian waltzes, supposedly because it matched movements that involved rotation.

This article will explain the origins of rhythm and time signatures (2/4, 4/4, and 3/4) from an evolutionary biological and historical perspective.

What is the origin of our sense of rhythm? Humans aren't the only ones who keep the beat!?

Rhythm is defined as "a phenomenon that repeats in a certain pattern that living beings can perceive."

The act of keeping rhythm is a phenomenon that is widely observed in organisms ranging from insects to monkeys, and there are examples such as the following (Iversen, 2016).

It's still unclear whether this sense of rhythm, from insects to humans, is due to genes that were common to all of them in evolutionary biology, but it seems that a certain degree of rhythmic sense is inherited.

What is the origin of the innate human sense of rhythm and the 2/4 time signature? Was the birth of walking the most important factor?

However, humans (and some birds) are thought to have developed a special sense of rhythm called "Rich BPS (Rich Beat Perception and Synchronization)" (Iversen, 2016).

Rich BPS consists of the following elements:

In short, it could be described as the ability to actively and predictively understand rhythm. It is currently believed that animals other than humans either lack this ability or possess it to a very limited extent.

So, what is considered to be the origin of Rich BPS and the 2/4 time signature?

Although there are various theories, walking is considered a very important factor (Iversen, 2016; Fitch, 2016).

For bipedal animals, the most energy-efficient form of walking is thought to be isochronic walking (walking with a constant period). Therefore, they move their left and right legs in a rhythmic manner.

It is believed that all humans, to varying degrees, instinctively acquire a sense of rhythm in order to grasp this sense of tempo.

There is a theory that the feeling of "pleasant rhythm" is an evolutionary by-product of "the motivation for infants to start walking."

Even adults sometimes feel a sense of comfort while taking a walk, which can be rephrased as finding the periodic vestibular and auditory inputs pleasant.

This theory suggests that the enjoyment of walking, stemming from periodic vestibular and auditory input, led to a preference for singing and dancing, which involve movements that stimulate the auditory and vestibular senses.

From another perspective, when bipedal animals walk in groups, if they can synchronize their walking rhythms, they may be able to quickly detect enemy groups, predators, or prey whose footsteps are not in sync. Furthermore, the size of the group can be concealed by layering sounds. This can also be considered a significant advantage of the evolution of Rich BPS.

In music theory, 2/4 time is monotonous because it consists only of strong and weak beats, and nowadays it is only used in marches, popular songs, and a few other genres, having largely given way to 4/4 time.

What is the origin of the 4/4 time signature?

4/4 time is a time signature with four beats per measure. It is similar to 2/4 time, but is generally distinguished by the fact that the strength of the beats progresses from strong to weak to medium-strong to weak. However, since the strength of the beats is not the sole definition of 4/4 time, it seems that the distinction is largely based on convention.

4/4 time, where a quarter note constitutes one beat, is the most widely used time signature in modern music and is used extensively in all genres, including rock, pop, dance music, classical, and jazz.

So, what do you think is the original origin of 4/4 time?

This is indeed considered to be walking (Fitch, 2016). However, the interpretation of walking changes slightly in this case.

When you're walking, you think of it as "sound of kicking with the right foot → sound of lifting the right foot → sound of kicking with the left foot → sound of lifting the left foot."

If we think about it this way, we get a time signature that follows the pattern of "strong beat → weak beat → strong beat → weak beat".

However, to the best of the author's knowledge, there are no papers that offer a clear explanation for the emergence of "mid-strong beats." While it's intuitively clear that the presence of "mid-strong beats" adds complexity and makes the music more enjoyable, it may remain a scientific mystery.

The "4/4 time signature" of "strong beat → weak beat → medium-strong beat → weak beat," based on modern music theory, is believed to have originated in the dance music of the early 17th century Baroque period, but its formation process is not well understood.

Even now, with the advent of DTM (Desktop Music) and the ability to reproduce any kind of music, the fact that even time signatures, along with the aforementioned 2/4 time signature, are still among the most widely used in pop music suggests that we instinctively prefer even time signatures, which resemble walking rhythms.

However, this approach alone cannot explain complex music that is not mainstream, such as music with irregular time signatures, groove, laid-back, push, offbeat, syncopation, and swing. While not mainstream, this music cannot be ignored and has achieved commercial success. While there's a strong sense that "being offbeat is more fun and comfortable," its biological origins remain a great mystery.

However, I also feel that these techniques are valuable when used in a partial manner.

What is the origin of the triple meter?

Triple time is a time signature with three beats per measure, consisting of a strong beat, a weak beat, and another weak beat. It is a time signature commonly used in Western dance music such as waltzes and minuets.

Typical time signatures include 3/4 time, where one beat is a quarter note, and 3/8 time, where two beats are eighth notes.

How did the triple meter come about?

While it may have originated even earlier, in Europe, mensural notation, which emerged in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, made it possible to accurately write the length of notes. It was then that, theoretically, triple time became possible.

In fact, the widespread use of triple time is believed to have originated in the waltz, at least in Europe (Fitch, 2016). There are various theories, but it is thought to have become popular in Europe around 1580 and developed from German and Austrian folk dances (Buurman, 2021). As a side note, the Japanese Wikipedia states that it was established in the 13th century, but there is no source for this, and there is no such statement in the English version.

In the Viennese waltz, a series of steps (step → turn → bring feet together) are interspersed between turns, with each "bringing feet together" action serving as a short break to prepare for the next step with the opposite foot. This creates a cycle of six steps, with both the right and left feet taking steps.

The unique aspect of this movement is that it involves rotation, and it is believed that a 3/4 time signature naturally becomes optimal when this action is involved.

Triple time can be considered a relatively new time signature, having emerged after the development of more relaxed dances.

What are some other theories about the evolution of rhythm?

There are several other theories regarding the evolution of rhythm, which I will introduce for reference (Iversen, 2016; Seki & Tachibana, 2023).

The Vocal Learning Hypothesis posits that a sense of rhythm evolved as a byproduct of the ability to imitate voices. This is supported by the fact that parrots and humans possess both the ability to imitate voices and a rich BPS (Beatman-Fetal Positioning System). However, this contradicts the fact that non-vocal mimicry animals (such as sea lions) also possess a sense of rhythm. This might simply be a pre-adaptation for acquiring neural circuits that convert auditory input into motor output.

The theory of sexual selection, proposed by the renowned evolutionary psychologist George Miller, suggests that musical ability was advantageous in mate selection. However, the fact that both sexes possess musical ability contradicts the typical theory of sexual selection. Nevertheless, since there are differences in musical preferences between men and women, it is possible that sexual selection occurred incidentally after the evolution of rhythmic sense.

The social bonding and group cooperation theory posits that rhythm evolved to promote group bonding and cooperative behavior. This seems natural when we consider the sense of unity we feel and the mosh pit we form at live concerts today. However, natural selection usually occurs among individuals or closely related groups, and this type of evolution falls under the category of "multilevel group selection," which is different from the usual pattern. This idea is not very popular in evolutionary biology because there is debate about its interpretation (although I think there is some truth to it). Moreover, it seems that rhythm is not the only thing that could promote bonding, so perhaps the sense of unity is a consequence of the evolution of rhythm.

The maladaptation theory (music being a byproduct) was proposed by the famous psychologist Steven Pinker, who argued that music is an "auditory cheesecake," a pleasure-seeking technique, and not an evolutionary adaptation. While it's true that modern, pleasant music might be like a cheesecake, the very sense of rhythm itself seems to be an evolutionary product.

Currently, the prevailing view seems to me that the fundamental sense of rhythm evolved in conjunction with walking, but this may change depending on future research.

References

Buurman, E. 2021. Early Viennese Waltz Dances. In: E. Buurman (Ed.), The Viennese Ballroom in the Age of Beethoven (pp. 32-54). Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781108797856, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108863278.003

Fitch, WT 2016. Dance, music, meter and groove: a forgotten partnership. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10: 64. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00064

Iversen, JR 2016. 21 In the beginning was the beat: evolutionary origins of musical rhythm in humans. In: R. Hartenberger (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Percussion (pp. 281-295). Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781107472433, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316145074.022

Seki, Yoshimasa & Tachibana, Ryosuke. 2023. Animal rhythm synchronization ability and its origins. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Japan 80(1): 33-40. https://doi.org/10.20697/jasj.80.1_33

"Jadugal of the Tent" is a manga by Tomato Soup depicting the life of Fatima Hatun. As a fan of Tomato Soup, I read it and found it to be quite faithful to historical facts, educational, and also an interesting story. This book would be suitable for people interested in the worldview of medieval Islam and the Mongol Empire, but it will also appeal to those interested in a female perspective or world history rooted in "daily life." This book would not be suitable for people who are sensitive to the cruel acts committed by the Mongol Empire. In this article, I will write a review and my impressions of "Jadugal of the Tent, Volume 1."

Basic information about this manga

In the harem, intelligence is beauty. In the 13th century, Fatima, a woman who was captured by the Mongol Empire, the most powerful empire on earth, and forced to serve in its harem, hails from Iran, a country that boasted the world's highest level of medical technology and scientific knowledge at the time. Seeking a world where she could utilize her knowledge and wisdom, Fatima meets Dregene, the sixth wife of the second emperor, Ögedei, a woman with complex feelings towards the Mongol Empire.
A tale of two women shaking up a great empire, spun by Tomato Soup, the prodigy of historical manga!

『Amazon』

• Title: Jardugal of the Tent, Volume 1
• Author: Tomato Soup
• Publisher: Akita Shoten
• Release date: 2022/8/16
• Language: Japanese
• Book length: 192 pages
• ISBN-10: 4253264468
• ISBN-13: 978-4253264464, 9784253264464

Who is the author?

Tomato soup

A manga artist who has worked on numerous historical manga. In 2019, she began serializing her first manga , "Dampier's Delicious Adventure," featuring the real-life explorer William Dampier, on East Press's web media "Matogrosso." It gained popularity, ranking 6th in the male category of "This Manga is Amazing! 2021." In 2021, she began serializing "Tenmaku no Jadougal" in Akita Shoten's "Souffle." This work won 1st place in the female category of "This Manga is Amazing! 2023" and 5th place in the "Manga Taisho 2023."

『Mangapedia』

I've known about Tomato Soup since the days of web comics, and I used to check them out occasionally, but ever since "Dampier's Delicious Adventure" was published as a comic, I've been reading it without fail.

They tweet behind-the-scenes stories and details about their historical research on Twitter, so why not follow them?

Why did you decide to read it?

I had already read Tomato Soup's manga , "Dampier's Delicious Adventures," which was themed around privateers during the Age of Discovery. I was drawn to the author's cute, stylized illustrations, detailed explanations that gave a good sense of the era, and slightly cynical humor that also showed an understanding of internet culture, and I became a fan.

This time, it's a different title and a different theme, which piqued my interest, so I decided to read it.

Who are the main characters and what is the story about? How historically accurate is it?

The protagonist is modeled after Fatima Khatun. Fatima Khatun was a woman from Mashhad who served the Mongol Empire in the mid-13th century. In the story, she is called "Sitara" in her childhood, but this does not appear to be historically accurate.

At that time, Mashhad, which was part of the Khwarazmian dynasty, was destroyed by the Mongol invasion, and Fatima Khatun was taken prisoner.

However, Fatima Khatun managed to gain favor with the Mongol Empire and, after the death of the second emperor Ögedei Khan, rose to become a close confidante of Empress Dregene. This is why she is a figure of interest.

However, it is known that when the third emperor, Guyuk, rose to power, he was overthrown and brutally executed as a "sorcerer."

Volume 1 depicts how Sitala is bought as a slave in the Khwarazmian dynasty and comes to live with a family of scholars, but after the Khwarazmian dynasty is destroyed by the Mongol Empire, Sitala, who has ingratiated herself with the Mongol army, meets Sorkokhtani, the wife (principal consort) of Tolui.

The story largely follows historical events and is expected to continue in the future, but details such as Sitara's time as a slave are likely fictional, as there doesn't seem to be any historical record to support them. In fact, the origin of the scholar's family name is revealed at the end of the book. However, the portrayal of daily life at the time seems to be very detailed and well-researched.

Incidentally, an article in the Mainichi Shimbun states that the title "Jadugal" means "witch" in Arabic, but I was unable to confirm the exact spelling, so I cannot confirm whether this is true or not. It is thought to originate from the fact that Fatima Hatun was later called a sorceress, and this will likely play a key role in the story.

What are your thoughts?

Young Master Muhammad is the perfect prince...

Sitara, who was bought as a slave and didn't study much, changes after meeting Muhammad and realizing the value of learning. Muhammad demonstrates this through his actions, albeit in a rather chaotic way!

This young Muhammad is not only intelligent but also a handsome young man... He has more than enough qualities to make you fall in love. In "Dampier's Delicious Adventure," the characters were cutely stylized, but they didn't really evoke such feelings in me, but this time I'm totally in love! If I had met such an ideal prince in my childhood, I'm sure I would have been hung up on my first love. What about Sitara?

Of course, Sitara is cute too. I like how her expressions are drawn so vividly.

What was the reason Sitara decided to curry favor with Mongolia...?

Sitara is captured by the Mongol army, but, as in historical fact, she tries to gain favor with them. However, she must have experienced considerable internal conflict in trying to curry favor with the enemy army that killed her loved ones.

At that moment, a certain word from Muhammad once again supported Sitala and helped her make a decision.

This scene is sure to be moving.

What are Sitara's feelings towards Tolui's principal wife, Solkokhtani...?

Sitara is to meet Solkochthani, the principal wife of Tolui, who has invaded the town, but Solkochthani's purpose is to study Euclid's Elements.

Solkokhtani says he wants to know about the world, not just life on the steppes.

Sitala, influenced by Muhammad and finding value in learning, seemed to share a similar mindset to this person, but what emotions did Sitala experience at this time? Please find out in the main story.

Other little tidbits

In medieval Mongolia, there was a concept called "Otchigin" (master of the hearth), where the youngest child inherited the family home... This might be a basic concept, but I'm embarrassed to admit I didn't know it. Isn't it a bit too unique? And what happens when more children are born?

- Occasionally you can see internet memes. I like space cats. The style that blends the present and the past is interesting.

Who is this book suitable for?

This book is definitely recommended for those interested in the worldview of medieval Islam and the worldview of the Mongol Empire that was to unfold, but it will also appeal to those interested in a female perspective or world history rooted in everyday life.

While many historical manga depicting war focus on bravery and the details of battles, this manga centers on human relationships.

Few people are familiar with life in medieval Islam or the Mongol Empire, are they? Both are unfamiliar to most Japanese people, but they contain a wealth of fascinating information.

While there are undoubtedly many speculative aspects regarding daily life, as someone who regularly follows Tomato Soup's tweets, which involve historical research, I was able to read it with great confidence.

Who is this book not suitable for?

There are definitely graphic and brutal descriptions. While there were similar descriptions in "Dampier's Delicious Adventure," this is on a completely different level.

The Mongol Empire, the subject of this film, is famous for its extremely cruel punishments of rebellious nations, and this film depicts that aspect head-on. Therefore, it may not be suitable for those who are sensitive to such scenes. However, I did not find any depictions of destruction.

On the other hand, the latter half also introduces figures from the Mongol Empire. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei, Tolui—a truly impressive group who transformed the Eurasian continent... Seeing this might give you a different perspective.

summary

"Jadougal of the Tent" is quite historically accurate, educational, and has an interesting storyline. I highly recommend you pick it up and read it!

KALDI sells a spicy condiment called "Sambal" (JAN: 4515996938207) (as of November 13, 2022). Even after searching Japanese websites, I couldn't find a very good orthodox way to eat it, but after researching local dishes, it seems that in Japan, it can be easily enjoyed with salads, fried chicken, grilled fish, and fried fish. I personally have become addicted to it! However, a simple question arises: why does Sambal, a Southeast Asian dish, use chili peppers that originated in the Americas? This is related to Indonesia's complex history as a colony. Along with the history of Sambal and Indonesia, I've put together a brief review of KALDI's Sambal.

What is sambal?

We've recreated the homemade sambal you'd find in a restaurant, but with just the right amount of spiciness. Sambal is a staple condiment on Indonesian dinner tables. This original chili sauce is made by grinding paprika, onions, tomato puree, garlic, and red chilies, resulting in a perfectly balanced spiciness. It's a versatile condiment that can be used with rice and raw egg, fried chicken, grilled fish, and as a condiment for hot pot dishes.

『KALDI Online Store』

Sambal is a spicy condiment used in Indonesian and Malaysian cuisine. Originating in Indonesia, the word is originally from Javanese and Sundanese, and is a loanword in Indonesian. It's a type of chili sauce or paste made from various chili peppers and other ingredients such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallots, green onions, palm sugar, and lime juice. It comes in a wide range of flavors, from spicy to sweet, and commercially available varieties include seafood flavors. While the general ingredients are standardized, there are considerable differences in the ingredients used even within Indonesia.

How is sambal best eaten?

One day, while browsing at KALDI, I discovered a product called sambal. Since I like spicy food and ethnic cuisine, I bought it, but I was unsure how to use it. It's hard to stick with something if you don't enjoy eating it, right?

So, I looked at various Japanese websites to find out how to eat it deliciously, but there were many Japanese-style adaptations, and it was difficult to find out how it is eaten locally... So I looked at the English Wikipedia, etc. And that's how I found the names of a few dishes.

Lalab is a Sundanese raw vegetable salad served with sambal. Nowadays, it's made with cucumber, tomato, cabbage, lettuce, lemon basil, black nightshade, yardlong beans, spinach, papaya, and chayote, and is eaten with sambal. Essentially, it's just a salad with sambal. It's very easy to make at home.

Sambal goreng is a stir-fry dish made with sambal. "Goreng" means "to stir-fry." It seems to be made with meat, potatoes, tempeh, chicken, fried tofu, shrimp, fish, squid, eggs, and more.

Ayam goreng is fried chicken that is eaten with sambal as a dip.

Ikan bakar is an Indonesian dish where "ikan" means fish and "bakar" means to grill, so it literally translates to "grilled fish." It's grilled after being generously coated with sambal (a type of Indonesian sauce).

Ikan goreng is fried fish cooked in coconut oil and eaten with sambal as a dip.

Considering all of this, it seems difficult to completely recreate the meal in Japan, but it can be easily enjoyed by pairing it with salads, fried chicken, grilled fish, or fried fish. Here are some Japanese recipes for sambal goreng; you might want to take a look.

Sambal Udang Recipe | ASEAN Recipes | ASEANPEDIA – ASEAN Everything You Need to Know

This dish uses the spicy condiment "sambal." Recommended for those who love spicy food!

aseanpedia.asean.or.jp

My impressions after trying it

I tried dipping lettuce and tomatoes in it, intending it to be like larab, but it was delicious! The lettuce was reliably tasty, and although I thought the tomatoes might be a bit odd since sambar already contains tomatoes, the combination of freshness and tomato created a complex harmony. It has a fair amount of spiciness, but it's milder than the "Eating Garam Masala" I also bought at KALDI. With the garam masala, I felt like I was using too much because it was too spicy, but with the sambar, perhaps because it contains tomatoes and shrimp paste, it has a lot of umami, and I kept adding more and more. However, it is quite spicy, so depending on your constitution, it might make your nose run, so be careful. I would recommend this to people who want to eat salad but feel that dressings lack punch in flavor. I plan to eat salad with this for a while. I just need to be careful not to get carried away and eat too much chili and get a stomach ache.

I also tried it with fried chicken, intending to use it with ayam goreng (fried chicken), and as expected, it paired very well. Be careful not to overeat with this! However, since sambal has a strong flavor, I think it might go better with milder foods like white fish.

Sambal goreng requires some adjustment of quantities and is therefore a bit more advanced, but I'd like to try making it sometime. It seems easy to try since no extra ingredients are needed. However, figuring out which ingredients work best might require some experimentation. If anyone has tried it, please let me know!

The history of sambal: Why does sambal, a Southeast Asian dish, use chili peppers that originated in the Americas?

The chili peppers that are the main ingredient in sambal are not native to Southeast Asia, but to the Americas. Why does sambal, a Southeast Asian dish, use chili peppers that originated in the Americas? The same goes for tomatoes, too.

This is because sambal originated in Indonesia, and its history was greatly altered by the introduction of chili peppers and tomatoes into Indonesia (Surya & Tedjakusuma, 2022).

Chili peppers are native to Central and South America, and among them, the cayenne pepper and bird's-eye chili pepper varieties were introduced to Indonesia in the 16th century during the Age of Discovery by Portuguese and Spanish sailors as part of the "Columbian Exchange," an exchange of plants and animals between the Old and New Worlds. Therefore, the common chili pepper varieties used in sambal include cayenne pepper and bird's-eye chili pepper. Tomatoes are also thought to have been introduced around this time.

However, even before chili peppers arrived in Indonesia, sambal was already a staple in traditional Indonesian cuisine. So how was sambal made back then? It is believed that it was made not from chili peppers, but from indigenous spices such as long pepper (Piper retrofractum), black pepper (Piper nigrum), and ginger (Zingiber officinale).

While some of these are still used in Java, the overwhelming popularity of chili peppers has ultimately led to them becoming rare, with their use limited to the production of traditional herbal medicines and jams (traditional Javanese herbal beverages).

Ancient Indonesian texts are scarce, and it's unclear exactly when sambal began to be made. However, the oldest known mention of sambal is found in the ancient Javanese history book " Serat Centhini " (1819-1912), an ancient manuscript written in Sanskrit that compiles knowledge of traditional Javanese religion, art, stories, and teachings. According to this book, 16 different varieties of sambal are recorded. It also appears that sambal was a valuable commodity in Javanese markets during the time of the Old Mataram Kingdom around the 10th century.

Subsequently, the kingdom changed hands from the Kediri Kingdom to the Singhasari Kingdom, then to the Majapahit Kingdom, and finally to the Mataram Kingdom. During the time of the Mataram Kingdom, as mentioned above, chili peppers and tomatoes were brought in by Portuguese and Spanish sailors and became the main ingredients for sambal.

During the 1920s, when the Mataram Kingdom became a Dutch colony under the Dutch East Indies, sambal gained popularity among the upper-class Dutch community. Sambal became part of a high-end meal enjoyed by the Dutch elite, known as a listafel (meaning "rice table" in Dutch). A listafel is a celebratory dish that includes small portions of rice, side dishes, and Indonesian specialties, allowing diners to enjoy many different dishes at once.

Following the Japanese occupation and independence from the Netherlands, a massive cookbook written by Mustika Rasa in 1967 under the guidance of Sukarno (Indonesia's first president) included 63 sambal recipes among 1,600 traditional Indonesian dishes. Over the years, sambal recipes have branched out into various localized versions, depending on regional tastes and the availability of ingredients.

Today, sambal is widely used as a condiment in many parts of Indonesia. In many homes and restaurants, sambal is traditionally made using fresh ingredients and consumed directly.

However, with technological advancements, sambal began to be commercially produced through sterilization to meet high market demand and extend shelf life. While well-known classic and traditional sambal has been widely consumed by Indonesians, new sambal recipes are constantly being invented by the food industry to meet the expectations of consumers seeking novelty.

Why not try eating sambal while reflecting on Indonesia's tumultuous history?

References

Surya, R., & Tedjakusuma, F. 2022. Diversity of sambals, traditional Indonesian chili pastes. Journal of Ethnic Foods 9(1): 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-022-00142-7

Reference Sites

https://gourmand-club.com/blog/art/00016.html

gourmand-club.com

Hello everyone, are you aware that there is an app called " Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History" that contains all the questions from the book " Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History" ?

Yamakawa Q&A World History

Developer:Imagineer Co., Ltd.

¥610

poster withAppReach

I recently purchased and started playing this app, so I'll share my current impressions.

In conclusion, although there are some drawbacks, I find it very convenient and continue to use it.

This article is intended to be helpful for those wondering whether a world history Q&A app is actually useful.

This review is written from a working professional's perspective, so it may not be suitable for students. Also, the author uses the Android version and this review is based solely on that version.

History is a discipline closely related to biology.

History, depending on how you interpret it, can be considered "the ecology of humankind."

For example, in the field of "evolutionary psychology," there is a discipline that considers the natural environment of Africa where humans evolved and examines the genetic basis of human behavior and psychology.

Furthermore, Jared Diamond's famous book , "Guns, Germs, and Steel," examines the differences in the development of civilizations due to differences in resources in human habitats. This can be said to be an examination of environmentally-influenced human behavior and psychology.

In that sense, as someone who has studied biology for a long time, I find it very interesting to read.

My history of studying world history

That's why I've recently started studying world history in earnest, trying to memorize it.

I've always liked history, but in high school I was in the science stream and didn't have the opportunity to study it systematically...

During my university days, I had the freedom to study as I pleased, and I remember neglecting biology and devouring books on ancient and modern history.

I studied prehistory quite obsessively. I can recite all of them from memory: Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, Denisovans, Homo floresiensis (laughs). This area is mostly biology, though.

Learn all the items from YouTube videos

It was during my graduate school days that I came across the YouTube channel "Historia Mundi," and I was blown away. You could watch lectures on all topics in world history and Japanese history for free.

Historia Mundi channel is here

Geography has now been added to the curriculum. When I was a student, I was engrossed in it, and I went through Japanese history once and world history twice.

This channel is truly great and provides learning opportunities for everyone.

Output is necessary for true memorization.

However, no matter how interesting a story you hear and how much information you absorb, output is essential for truly remembering it.

There are several ways to output information. Initially, I used a question-and-answer format in a book, but I felt that there were several aspects that didn't suit me.

Reasons why I found the Q&A format in books difficult to use

The book I purchased was "Yamakawa's Q&A World History."

I never took World History B in high school, but I have the impression that the book "Yamakawa One Question and Answer World History" is a standard textbook in the world of entrance exams. After all, it's a problem set from the publisher that produces the most famous textbooks.

The well-known website in the exam preparation industry , "Takeda Juku's Reversal of Fortune Passing.com," describes it as follows:

"Yamakawa World History Q&A" is a problem set for those who want to score well on entrance exams ranging from national universities to Waseda and Keio Universities, or for those who will be taking national or public university entrance exams that include essay questions.

"Yamakawa World History Q&A" is based on textbook content but is relatively voluminous. The explanations for the answers are thorough, making it suitable for preparing for the second-stage entrance exams of national and public universities, which often include descriptive and essay questions.

『Gyakuten Gokaku.com』

As a counterpoint, Toshin's "World History B: Question and Answer" seems to be quite well-known. I haven't used this one myself, but Yamakawa's version has a very simple layout and uses a lot of formal language, so Toshin's version might be a bit softer and easier to approach.

However, due to my own personality, I found these paper-based question-and-answer formats difficult to use. These can be broadly categorized into the following three points.

• Easy to give up
• Moving my eyes is difficult.
• Difficult to access immediately when out and about

Easy to give up

With a paper-based question-and-answer format, it's obvious, but there's a long list of questions. For me, this tends to make me feel overwhelmed.

I often found myself feeling overwhelmed, thinking, "Even after putting in a little effort, there are still so many problems..." I would just flip through the pages and skim through them, thinking I had done something, but in reality, I hadn't really grasped the material.

If I were a student, I might have tackled it even if it meant clinging to a rock (laughs).

I have a habit of making it difficult to concentrate because when I see a single word, it triggers all sorts of associations.

Moving my eyes is difficult.

This is obvious, but with books, you need to open the pages from left to right and move your eyes from top to bottom. However, it's difficult to follow small print for extended periods...

Furthermore, the question-and-answer format sometimes assumed that the reader would refer to the previous question, which often led to confusion about where I had left off and a loss of concentration.

Difficult to access immediately when out and about

Question-and-answer style materials are definitely something you'd want to use while traveling on trains or other public transport. However, taking a book out and putting it back in during transfers can be a hassle...

It would be great if I had a handbag, but there are times when I don't have one. I found this quite annoying.

I downloaded the app version of Yamakawa's Q&A World History book.

I've always been good at studying using computers and smartphones, so I was looking for an app to study with... and I found the app version of "Yamakawa One Question, One Answer World History" ! It was perfect.

Yamakawa Q&A World History

Developer:Imagineer Co., Ltd.

¥610

poster withAppReach

[Number of questions included]

Approximately 4,700 questions (16 chapters in total)

⇒This covers important historical terms related to people, politics, economics, religion, art, literature, and more.

[Convenient Features]

1) It features two modes: a "multiple-choice mode" where you select an answer from four options, and a "single-question, single-answer mode" that tests your memory.

2) Your grades will be recorded automatically.

3) Even if you interrupt the game midway, you can continue playing from where you left off.

4) You can select questions from "All," "Unanswered," "Incorrect," "Correct," and "★Checked (Questions individually checked by the user)." This allows you to focus on studying areas you struggle with.

5) The problems are set to three difficulty levels, and you can choose according to the difficulty level.

Google Play

The price is 600 yen, which is cheaper than a book.

While there isn't a detailed explanation of the content, it appears that this app is a port of the book version, released in almost the same format.

How to Use Yamakawa's Q&A World History

It's extremely easy to use. After downloading, you can start working on your problems immediately after making a few settings, such as turning the sound on or off.

The problems can be solved at any level, including chapters, sections, and sub-items.

Tapping an item in any unit will display "Settings" and "Learning".

setting

In "Settings," you can select "Problem extraction criteria," "Difficulty level," and "Random question presentation on/off."

The "Problem Extraction Criteria" allows you to extract problems based on your past correct answer history. I don't use this much for review because I forget even the problems I answered correctly very quickly.

The "difficulty level" can be freely selected from levels 1-3, which are pre-set for each question. I don't set it because I want to understand everything, but I think there may be situations where it's useful depending on the difficulty level of the exam.

The "Random Question Presentation On/Off" feature allows you to randomize the order in which questions are presented within a unit. This is something that cannot be done in books, making it a very convenient and highly recommended feature.

study

In "Learning," you can actually work on problems. There are two modes.

In "4-choice mode," a question is presented, and the user selects from four options set by the app. The order of the four options is randomly changed, preventing the problem of memorizing the order by location.

In "Question and Answer Mode," only the question is displayed, and you answer it verbally yourself. If your answer is correct, it is marked as correct. This aspect is a little ambiguous, but if it were an input-only format, it would be impossible to handle variations in notation, so this is probably unavoidable. Also, inputting kanji would be difficult in Asian history.

Select your preferred mode and the game will begin. While the basic gameplay involves simply solving problems, you can also save favorites, view explanations, and go back or skip questions.

After completing the test, your accuracy rate is displayed, which helps with motivation. I repeat the process until I reach 100%.

When it reaches 100%, a crown icon will appear to the left of the unit on the home screen.

Advantages of the app version of "Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History"

The advantages of this app are the inverse of the disadvantages of the book version.

• Because you can focus on the problem in front of you, you are less likely to get discouraged.
• Less eye movement is required.
• Can be taken out and solved instantly while out and about.

Less likely to give up

Unlike books, I feel less likely to give up because I can concentrate on the problem in front of me. This might be due to my personality, though.

Less eye movement is required.

Having to move your eyes less is very helpful because it means you don't have to expend energy on anything other than memorizing the problems.

Can be taken out and solved instantly while out and about.

This aspect is really convenient. You can easily get started even if you have to make many transfers on the train, or during short breaks like waiting at traffic lights.

The problem can be solved randomly.

This wasn't a drawback of the book, but I noticed it when I tried the app version. The question-and-answer format is designed with flow in mind, so memorizing the questions in order is important, but the option to use randomness to train yourself to answer quickly was a new feature.

Disadvantages of the app version of "Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History"

While it doesn't have many critical bugs, it's a fairly simple app, so there are a few things I'm not entirely happy with.

The 4-choice mode includes an obvious correct answer.

Sometimes, the correct answer is obvious because the multiple-choice questions include terms like "treaty" and "conference," which should have been omitted. While this isn't the case for most questions, I wish this had been corrected.

You cannot stop the response midway.

Since you can't stop midway through answering, if you stop the app or leave it for too long, the app will reset due to Android's specifications, and you'll have to start all over again. Although the accuracy rate up to a certain point is saved, there are cases where there are many questions even when divided into sub-sections, so it's stressful to have to solve it all in one go.

Google Play says, "Even if you interrupt your gameplay, you can continue playing from where you left off." But how do I do that...?

It is not possible to display questions randomly from all available questions.

One of the advantages of this app is the ability to randomly display and solve problems, but it's not possible to solve problems from the entire range of material. While it would be interesting to test your skills by having problems randomly displayed from the entire range, such a mode doesn't exist. However, it is possible at the chapter level.

Is the explanation too brief?

The explanations are very brief, and many questions don't have explanations at all. In the multiple-choice mode, various terms appear together, and it would be nice to hear explanations for those as well, but you can only hear explanations for the correct answer. This is a bit disappointing.

How will the data be transferred?

I haven't tried it myself yet, but it seems like there's a possibility that data might be lost if you change your smartphone device. There's no export function or anything like that, so it seems like there's nothing the app can do about it. However, I've had data transferred successfully with other apps, so it might be possible on Android in some cases (unverified).

[Updated 2023-12-13] I recently tested this and downloaded the app on a different device, and the progress was saved. However, I haven't yet verified whether synchronization is possible.

summary

In summary, while there are several drawbacks, the ability to solve problems via a smartphone app is undeniably convenient. I plan to continue using it repeatedly to assess how well I'm retaining the terminology.

Similarly, apps based on books are available for subjects like Japanese history and English, but there are fewer of them for geography and science.

While there are many app-based problem sets available, the reality is that many of them lack guaranteed quality because the problems are original.

Even after becoming a working adult, there are times when I feel like I want to study again, so I would be happy if similar workbooks based on books were sold!