2025年の8月から開始し、高頻度ではないですが、週1回程度で１年ほど継続しており、日々その効果を実感しています。

「ヨガ」と聞くと、どのようなイメージを持つでしょうか？

瞑想、精神統一、チャクラ、エネルギー、スピリチュアルな修行……。

ヨガには古代インドの思想や哲学に由来する歴史があり、精神性や宗教性と結びついた側面があることは事実です。

しかし、現代のヨガは、それだけではありません。

現在では、ヨガが身体や精神に及ぼす影響について、医学・生理学・神経科学などの分野で数多くの研究が行われています。

例えば、ヨガには以下のような効果が報告されています。

• 柔軟性やバランス能力の向上
• 筋力や身体機能の改善
• 血圧や血糖値の改善
• 自律神経の調整
• ストレスや不安の軽減
• 抑うつ症状の改善
• 慢性腰痛の軽減
• 睡眠の質の改善

2025年に発表されたアンブレラレビューでは、51件のシステマティックレビューを統合し、ヨガのさまざまな健康効果が検証されています。

その結果、特に抑うつ症状、血圧、血糖値、疲労に対する改善効果が報告されました（Wang et al., 2025）。

つまり、ヨガは単なる精神修養ではなく、身体と精神の両方に働きかける運動として科学的に研究されているのです。

この記事では、ヨガが身体や精神に与えるメリットと、その背景にある生理学的メカニズムについて、科学論文をもとに解説します。

ヨガとは？一般的な運動と何が違うのか

ヨガは、一般的に以下の3つの要素を組み合わせた心身の実践です。

1. アーサナ（ポーズ）：
   さまざまな姿勢を取り、身体を動かしたり、一定の姿勢を保持したりします。筋肉を収縮させることで筋力を刺激するとともに、関節の可動域や柔軟性、バランス能力を高めます。
2. プラーナヤーマ（呼吸法）：
   呼吸を意識的にコントロールする方法です。呼吸の速度や深さを調整することで、自律神経系や呼吸循環機能に影響を与えると考えられています。
3. 瞑想・マインドフルネス：
   自分の呼吸や身体感覚、思考などに注意を向ける実践です。注意力や感情のコントロール、ストレスへの対処能力に関係すると考えられています。

このように、ヨガは一般的な運動と異なり、身体運動・呼吸・注意制御を同時に行うことが特徴です。

Ross and Thomas（2010）は、ヨガと一般的な運動を比較した研究をレビューし、ヨガが身体的・精神的な健康指標に幅広い影響を及ぼす可能性を報告しています。

ただし、ヨガがすべての運動より優れているという意味ではありません。運動としての特性を理解することが大切です。

ヨガの身体的メリット

まずは、ヨガが身体に及ぼす影響について解説します。

柔軟性の向上

ヨガの代表的なメリットの一つが柔軟性の向上です。

ヨガでは、さまざまなポーズを通じて筋肉や腱、関節周囲の組織を伸ばします。

継続的に身体を動かすことで、関節可動域の改善が期待できます。

特に、股関節、肩関節、脊柱、ハムストリングスなどの柔軟性を高めることに役立ちます。

高齢者を対象とした2023年のシステマティックレビュー・メタ解析では、ヨガによって柔軟性が有意に改善することが報告されています（Ko et al., 2023）。

柔軟性が高まることで、日常生活における動作が行いやすくなり、身体を動かす際の制限も少なくなる可能性があります。

筋力の向上

ヨガはストレッチのように思われることがありますが、実際には筋肉に負荷をかける運動でもあります。

例えば、以下のようなポーズでは筋肉が働きます。

• プランク：腹筋、腹横筋、肩周囲の筋肉
• 戦士のポーズ：大腿四頭筋、大臀筋
• 椅子のポーズ：大腿四頭筋、大臀筋、体幹筋
• 板のポーズ：腹筋、胸筋、上腕三頭筋
• 橋のポーズ：大臀筋、ハムストリングス

これらのポーズでは、自分の体重を負荷として筋肉を収縮させます。

特に、一定の姿勢を保持する動作では、筋肉が長さを大きく変えずに力を発揮する等尺性収縮が生じます。

このような筋収縮を繰り返すことで、筋力や筋持久力の向上が期待できます。

Ko et al.（2023）のメタ解析では、高齢者のヨガ実践によって筋力が改善することも報告されています。

ただし、筋肥大や最大筋力の向上を目的とする場合は、負荷を段階的に増やせるウェイトトレーニングのほうが適しています。

ヨガは筋力トレーニングの完全な代替というより、身体を総合的に動かす運動として有効だと考えられます。

バランス能力の向上と転倒予防

ヨガでは、片足で立つポーズや不安定な姿勢を保持するポーズが多くあります。

例えば、木のポーズや戦士のポーズなどです。

これらの動作では、身体の重心をコントロールする必要があります。

その際、以下のような機能が働きます。

• 視覚による姿勢制御
• 前庭感覚による身体の傾きの検出
• 足裏や関節からの体性感覚
• 体幹や下肢の筋肉による姿勢調整

つまり、ヨガは筋力だけでなく、神経系と筋肉が協調して働く能力を鍛える運動でもあります。

Ko et al.（2023）のメタ解析では、ヨガによって高齢者のバランス能力が改善することが示されました。

バランス能力の維持は、加齢に伴う転倒リスクを減らすうえでも重要です。

慢性腰痛の改善

慢性的な腰痛に対しても、ヨガの有効性が研究されています。

2022年のCochraneレビューでは、慢性非特異的腰痛に対するヨガの効果が検証されました。

その結果、ヨガは何も運動をしない場合と比較して、腰痛に関連する身体機能の改善に役立つ可能性が示されました。

一方、他の腰痛向け運動と比較すると、明確な優位性は確認されていません（Wieland et al., 2022）。

腰痛改善のメカニズムとしては、次のような要素が考えられます。

1. 体幹筋や股関節周囲の筋肉を刺激することによる身体機能の改善
2. 股関節や脊柱周囲の柔軟性の改善
3. 身体感覚への注意を高めることによる動作の調整
4. 慢性疼痛に伴う心理的ストレスや不安の軽減

慢性腰痛は、単純に筋肉や骨格だけで説明できるものではありません。

身体的な要因と心理的な要因が複雑に関係しているため、身体運動とマインドフルネスの両方を含むヨガが役立つ可能性があります。

血圧の改善と高血圧対策

ヨガは高血圧に対する補助的な運動としても研究されています。

2025年に発表されたGeiger et al.のシステマティックレビュー・メタ解析では、高血圧または血圧が高めの人を対象にヨガの効果が検証されています（Geiger et al., 2025）。

ヨガによる血圧低下が期待できる理由として、以下のメカニズムが考えられています。

交感神経活動の低下

ストレスや緊張が続くと交感神経が活発になり、心拍数や血管の緊張が高まります。

呼吸法やリラクゼーションによって自律神経活動が変化すると、血圧の調整に影響する可能性があります。

副交感神経活動の増加

ゆっくりとした呼吸は、心拍変動や迷走神経活動に影響します。

これによって心拍数や循環器系の調節が変化する可能性があります。

ストレス反応の軽減

心理的ストレスは、視床下部・下垂体・副腎からなるHPA軸を介してコルチゾールなどの分泌に影響します。

ヨガによるストレス反応の軽減が、血圧調節にも関係していると考えられています。

血糖値の改善と2型糖尿病への影響

ヨガは糖尿病に関連する代謝指標にも影響することが報告されています。

2025年のアンブレラレビューでは、ヨガによって血糖値やHbA1cなどの指標が改善する可能性が示されています（Wang et al., 2025）。

そのメカニズムとして、以下のような作用が考えられます。

筋肉によるブドウ糖の取り込み

筋肉が収縮すると、インスリンの作用とは別の経路でも筋肉細胞へのブドウ糖の取り込みが促進されます。

代表的なのが、AMPKなどの細胞内シグナルやGLUT4の細胞膜への移動です。

GLUT4は、血液中のブドウ糖を細胞内に取り込むために重要な輸送体です。

ヨガのポーズで筋肉を収縮させることも、こうした筋収縮に関連する代謝反応を引き起こす可能性があります。

インスリン抵抗性の改善

継続的な身体活動は、筋肉の糖代謝やインスリン感受性に影響します。

ヨガによる身体活動に加え、ストレスの軽減や体重・腹囲の変化も血糖コントロールに関係すると考えられます。

自律神経系への作用

交感神経と副交感神経のバランスは、糖代謝や内分泌系の調節にも関係しています。

ヨガによる自律神経系への作用が、代謝機能の改善に寄与する可能性があります。

ただし、ヨガによって糖尿病が治るわけではありません。食事療法や薬物療法、一般的な運動療法と組み合わせる補助的な方法として考える必要があります。

心血管疾患のリスク因子への影響

高血圧や糖尿病だけでなく、ヨガは心血管疾患に関連する複数のリスク因子にも影響する可能性があります。

例えば、

• 血圧
• 血糖値
• BMI
• 腹囲
• 血中脂質
• 自律神経機能

And so on.

これらは動脈硬化や心筋梗塞、脳卒中などの発症リスクに関係する重要な指標です。

ただし、これらの指標が改善することと、ヨガによって心筋梗塞や脳卒中の発症率が下がることは同じではありません。

ヨガ単独による心血管イベントの予防効果については、今後さらに大規模な研究が必要です。

睡眠の質の改善

睡眠も健康を維持するうえで重要な要素です。

ヨガには睡眠の質を改善する可能性が報告されています。

そのメカニズムとして考えられるのが、

• 自律神経活動の調整
• 心理的ストレスの軽減
• 身体の緊張の緩和
• 睡眠前の過剰な覚醒状態の低下

And so on.

特に、就寝前のリラックスを目的としたヨガは、睡眠習慣を整えるための補助的な方法として活用できます。

2026年の米国退役軍人省によるエビデンスマップでも、睡眠の質についてヨガの有益性を示す中程度の確実性の結論が報告されています（Mak et al., 2026）。

ヨガの精神的メリット

ここからは、ヨガの精神面への影響について解説します。

ヨガは身体を動かすだけでなく、呼吸や注意の向け方を意識するため、心理的な健康にも影響すると考えられています。

ストレスの軽減

ヨガの代表的な精神的メリットがストレスの軽減です。

人間がストレスを感じると、脳の視床下部を起点とするHPA軸が活性化します。

HPA軸は以下のように働きます。

視床下部
↓
下垂体
↓
副腎
↓
コルチゾール分泌

コルチゾールは、ストレスに対応するために重要なホルモンです。

しかし、慢性的なストレスによってストレス反応が長期化すると、睡眠、代謝、免疫、精神状態などに悪影響を及ぼす可能性があります。

ヨガでは、呼吸法や瞑想によって身体の緊張を緩和し、ストレス反応を調整することが期待されています。

Ross and Thomas（2010）は、ヨガがHPA軸や交感神経系の活動を調整する可能性について論じています。

自律神経のバランスを整える

自律神経は、心拍、血圧、呼吸、消化などを無意識に調整する神経系です。

大きく分けて、交感神経と副交感神経があります。

交感神経は身体を活動的な状態にし、副交感神経は休息や回復に関係します。

ヨガの呼吸法では、呼吸をゆっくりと行うことがあります。

ゆっくりとした呼吸は、心拍変動（HRV）や圧受容器反射などの循環調節機構に影響を与えます。

特に呼吸に合わせた心拍変動は、呼吸性洞性不整脈（RSA）と呼ばれています。

この現象には迷走神経が関係しています。

そのため、ヨガの呼吸法は自律神経系の調節に影響する可能性があります。

ただし、HRVが改善したからといって、あらゆる病気の予防につながると断定できるわけではありません。

不安の軽減

ヨガは不安症状に対しても研究されています。

Cramer et al.（2018）のシステマティックレビュー・メタ解析では、ランダム化比較試験を統合し、ヨガが不安症状を軽減する可能性を報告しています。

不安軽減に関係するメカニズムとしては、

• 呼吸による生理的覚醒の調整
• 身体感覚への注意
• ストレス反応の軽減
• 思考や感情を客観的に観察する練習

などが考えられます。

例えば、不安が強いときには、心拍数の上昇や呼吸の乱れなどの身体反応が起こることがあります。

呼吸に意識を向けることで、こうした身体反応を認識し、落ち着かせる練習ができます。

抑うつ症状の改善

ヨガは抑うつ症状に対しても研究が進んでいます。

Cramer et al.（2013）のシステマティックレビュー・メタ解析では、12件のランダム化比較試験、619人を対象に検証が行われました。

その結果、ヨガは通常ケアと比較して、短期的な抑うつ症状の改善に有効である可能性が示されました。

また、2024年のMoosburner et al.のメタ解析では、24件の研究、1,395人を対象に検討し、ヨガは受動的な対照群と比較して抑うつ症状の重症度を改善することが報告されています。

ただし、他の運動や治療などの積極的な対照群と比較した場合、抑うつ症状の重症度について明確な優位性は確認されませんでした。

つまり、ヨガは精神的な健康を支える選択肢の一つですが、薬物療法や心理療法の代わりになると考えるべきではありません。

脳機能への影響

近年では、ヨガが脳に与える影響についても研究されています。

Gothe et al.（2019）のシステマティックレビューでは、ヨガと脳の健康に関する神経画像研究がまとめられています。

その中では、以下のような脳領域への影響が検討されています。

• 海馬：記憶や学習に関係
• 前頭前野：注意や意思決定、感情調節に関係
• 扁桃体：恐怖や不安などの情動処理に関係
• 帯状皮質：注意や感情の調整に関係

ヨガを継続することで、脳の構造や機能、神経ネットワークに変化が生じる可能性が示唆されています。

ただし、研究数はまだ限られており、ヨガによる脳の変化が健康上の利益を直接引き起こすかどうかについては、さらなる検証が必要です。

なぜヨガには健康効果があるのか？科学的なメカニズム

ここまで紹介した効果を整理すると、ヨガは大きく分けて4つの経路から身体に影響していると考えられます。

筋肉への刺激による代謝改善

ヨガのポーズでは、自分の体重を利用して筋肉に負荷をかけます。

筋肉が収縮すると、エネルギー消費が増加し、筋肉細胞へのブドウ糖の取り込みが促進されます。

また、継続的な筋活動は筋肉の代謝機能やインスリン感受性にも関係します。

このため、ヨガは血糖値や代謝機能に好影響を与える可能性があります。

自律神経系への作用

ゆっくりとした呼吸や身体のリラックスは、迷走神経を含む自律神経系の調節に影響します。

その結果、心拍数や血圧、ストレスに対する生理的反応などが変化する可能性があります。

HPA軸への作用

ヨガによるリラクゼーションや心理的ストレスの軽減は、HPA軸の活動に影響する可能性があります。

コルチゾールなどのストレス関連ホルモンの調節を介して、睡眠や代謝、免疫機能などに影響することが考えられます。

脳の可塑性と感情調節

ヨガでは、身体を動かしながら呼吸や身体感覚に注意を向けます。

こうした注意訓練は、感情や思考への向き合い方に影響する可能性があります。

また、身体活動そのものも脳の可塑性に関係することから、運動と瞑想の両方が脳に作用している可能性があります。

重要なのは、これらのメカニズムが独立して働くとは限らないことです。

実際には、筋肉への刺激、呼吸、自律神経、脳機能などが相互に関係しながら、ヨガの健康効果につながっていると考えられます。

ヨガと筋トレ・ウォーキングは何が違う？

ここまで読むと、ヨガだけで十分な運動効果が得られるように思うかもしれません。

しかし、運動という観点では、それぞれ得意分野が異なります。

ヨガは、柔軟性やバランス能力、身体機能の改善に優れた特徴を持っています。

一方で、最大筋力や筋肥大を目的とする場合は、筋トレのほうが効率的です。

また、心肺持久力を高めたい場合は、ウォーキングやランニングなどの有酸素運動が適しています。

つまり、ヨガは他の運動の代わりというよりも、異なる運動効果を組み合わせるための選択肢として優れています。

特に、筋トレと有酸素運動にヨガを組み合わせることで、筋力・心肺機能・柔軟性・バランス能力を総合的に鍛えることができます。

ヨガは生活習慣病の予防にも役立つ？

ヨガは、生活習慣病に関係する複数の健康指標にも影響することが報告されています。

代表的なものは以下のとおりです。

これらは高血圧・2型糖尿病・肥満・脂質異常症・心血管疾患などに関係する重要な指標です。

Wang et al.（2025）のアンブレラレビューでも、ヨガによる血圧や血糖値の改善が報告されています。

ただし、注意したいのは、これらの研究の多くが既に健康上の問題を抱えている人を対象とした介入研究であることです。

血圧や血糖値が改善することと、将来の病気の発症率が低下することは別の問題です。

そのため、現段階では「ヨガによって生活習慣病を確実に予防できる」と断定するのではなく、「生活習慣病のリスク因子を改善する可能性がある」と理解するのが適切です。

ヨガを行う際の注意点

ヨガは比較的安全に実践できる運動ですが、すべての人にとって無条件に安全というわけではありません。

Cramer et al.（2015）のシステマティックレビュー・メタ解析では、ヨガの安全性が検証され、通常のケアや一般的な運動と同程度の安全性が示唆されました。

ただし、無理なポーズや過度なストレッチによって、筋肉や関節を痛める可能性があります。

特に以下の点に注意しましょう。

• 痛みを我慢してポーズを続けない
• 自分の柔軟性に合ったポーズを選ぶ
• 初心者は難易度の高いポーズを避ける
• 持病や関節疾患がある場合は専門家に相談する
• 体調が悪いときは無理をしない

また、ヨガは高血圧や糖尿病などの治療の代わりになるものではありません。

必要な医療や薬物療法を継続しながら、補助的な健康習慣として取り入れることが大切です。

まとめ：ヨガは科学的にも研究されている心身の運動

ヨガは古代インドに由来する歴史を持ち、精神性や哲学的な側面もある実践です。

しかし、現代医学や運動科学の研究によって、身体と精神に対するさまざまな効果が検証されています。

身体面では、

• 柔軟性の向上
• 筋力や筋持久力の改善
• バランス能力の向上
• 慢性腰痛の改善
• 血圧や血糖値などの健康指標への好影響

といったメリットが報告されています。

精神面では、

• ストレスの軽減
• 不安症状の改善
• 抑うつ症状の軽減
• 睡眠の質の改善
• 脳機能への影響

などが研究されています。

これらの背景には、筋肉への刺激、自律神経系の調節、HPA軸への作用、注意や感情の調節など、さまざまな生理学的メカニズムが関係していると考えられます。

もちろん、ヨガがすべての運動より優れているわけではありません。

筋力を高めたいなら筋トレ、心肺機能を高めたいなら有酸素運動など、目的に応じた運動を選ぶことが重要です。

そのうえで、身体と心の両方に働きかけるヨガは、健康的な生活習慣をつくるための有用な選択肢の一つといえるでしょう。

ヨガはスピリチュアルな側面だけでなく、身体運動・呼吸・脳機能という科学的な観点からも理解できる実践なのです。

科学的な効果をより高めるなら「ホットヨガ」という選択肢も

ヨガの柔軟性向上や自律神経調整、代謝改善といった効果は、温かい環境で行う「ホットヨガ」によってさらに体感しやすくなります。温熱環境下では筋肉や腱の柔軟性が高まり、効率よく発汗を促すことでリラクゼーション効果や血行促進が期待できます。

「まずは一度試してみたい」という方に向けて、代表的な大手ホットヨガスタジオ3社の特徴を比較しました。いずれもお得な体験レッスンを実施しているため、ご自身のライフスタイルに合ったスタジオを選んでみてください。

大手ホットヨガスタジオ3社比較

スタジオ	特徴・強み	おすすめな人	体験レッスン
LAVA（ラバ）	店舗数No.1。アットホームで初心者のプログラムが豊富	近所で通いたい方・ヨガ完全初心者	お得な体験予約受付中
ロイブ（loIve）	完全女性専用。スタイリッシュな空間と豊富なプログラム	周りを気にせずおしゃれに楽しみたい女性	60分手ぶら無料体験あり
カルド（CALDO）	予約不要で通いやすい。銀イオンスチーム＆コスパ抜群	事前予約の手間を省きたい方・コスパ重視	手ぶら体験予約受付中

あなたにぴったりのスタジオ選び

圧倒的な店舗数と手厚いサポートなら「LAVA（ラバ）」

日本最大級の店舗数を誇るLAVAは、ほとんどの店舗が駅から近く通いやすさが魅力です。日本人女性の体型・体質に合わせたプログラムが充実しており、インストラクターの丁寧な指導を受けられるため、ヨガが初めての方でも安心してスタートできます。

体験者数300万人突破キャンペーン！今なら3ヶ月1,980円で通い放題｜ホットヨガスタジオLAVA

体験者数300万人突破キャンペーン！今なら3ヶ月1,980円で通い放題｜ホットヨガスタジオLAVA

yoga-lava.com

女性目線で作られた洗練された空間なら「ロイブ（loIve）」

「自分自身を好きになる」をコンセプトにした女性専用スタジオ。カフェのようなおしゃれな内装やパウダールームが完備されており、手ぶらで気軽に体験レッスンを受けられます。体幹を鍛えるプログラムや最新のエクササイズも豊富です。

ホットヨガ loIve（ロイブ）をご検討中の方

手ぶらで体験レッスンが0円！上下ウェア・バスタオル・フェイスタオル・ヨガマット無料レンタルだから、手ぶらでOK！さらにお水（550ml×2本）をプレゼント！

af.moshimo.com

予約不要で思い立ったときに通える「カルド（CALDO）」

事前予約が不要（整理券制）なため、お仕事帰りや思い立ったタイミングで気軽に立ち寄れます。遠赤外線床暖房と銀イオンスチームによる清潔＆高保湿なスタジオ環境が特徴で、リーズナブルな月会費も魅力です。

【公式】ホットヨガスタジオ – カルド【CALDO】

初心者でも安心して始められるホットヨガならカルド。溶岩石の遠赤外線効果で発汗を促しダイエットや美肌、冷え性・体質改善に効果的。まずはお得な体験レッスンからスタート。

af.moshimo.com

References

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Anheyer, D., Pilkington, K., de Manincor, M., Dobos, G., & Ward, L. (2018). Yoga for anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Depression and Anxiety, 35(9), 830-843. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22762

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., & Dobos, G. (2013). Yoga for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 30(11), 1068-1083. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22166

Cramer, H., Ward, L., Saper, R., Fishbein, D., Dobos, G., & Lauche, R. (2015). The safety of yoga: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Epidemiology, 182(4), 281-293. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwv071

Geiger, C., Cramer, H., Anheyer, D., Dobos, G., & Kohl-Heckl, W. K. (2025). A systematic review and meta-analysis of yoga for arterial hypertension. PloS One, 20(5), e0323268. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323268

Gothe, N. P., Khan, I., Hayes, J., Erlenbach, E., & Damoiseaux, J. S. (2019). Yoga effects on brain health: A systematic review of the current literature. Brain Plasticity, 5(1), 105-122. https://doi.org/10.3233/BPL-190084

Ko, K. Y., Kwok, Z. C. M., & Chan, H. Y. L. (2023). Effects of yoga on physical and psychological health among community-dwelling older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Older People Nursing, 18(5), e12562. https://doi.org/10.1111/opn.12562

Mak, S., Zaccari, B., Amano, A., et al. (2026). Evidence map of yoga for various adult physical and mental health issues: Update from 2014-2025. Evidence Synthesis Program, Department of Veterans Affairs. https://hsrd.research.va.gov/publications/esp/yoga-map.cfm

Moosburner, A., Cramer, H., Bilc, M., Triana, J., & Anheyer, D. (2024). Yoga for depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 2024(1), 6071055. https://doi.org/10.1155/da/6071055

Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: A review of comparison studies. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2009.0044

Wang, F., Yang, W., Wang, C., Wang, K., Yu, Z., Ke, D., Sun, L., & Gao, X. (2025). Yoga and chronic diseases: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Movement and Nutrition in Health and Disease, 5(3), 244-255. https://doi.org/10.1515/mr-2024-0078

Wieland, L. S., Skoetz, N., Pilkington, K., Harbin, S., Vempati, R., & Berman, B. M. (2022). Yoga for chronic non-specific low back pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2022(11), CD010671. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010671.pub3

However, his psychology is buried among many self-help books, and many people may find it somewhat dubious. In fact, it tends to get lost in later generations, and even when he says the same things, it is rarely cited.

Indeed, Adler's ideas are based more on a synthesization of his own clinical experience than on a series of scientific verifications. Furthermore, they address not only facts but also themes beyond the realm of science, such as "how should one live?", and thus have aspects that are closer to philosophy. In that sense, some argue that it is not science.

This article will examine the extent to which Adlerian fundamental factual concepts are accepted in evolutionary biology, psychology, behavioral economics, neuroscience, and brain science. It is based on Miller & Dillman (2016), with additional papers added. Citations of papers mentioned in Miller & Dillman (2016) will be omitted.

In conclusion, the general direction is the same, but there are some differences in our views on conflict and free will.

This article presents an academic analysis, but if you want to systematically learn Adlerian psychology from the basics and apply it to your daily life and work, please refer to the [Official] Adlerian Psychology Certification Level 1 Course. Online curricula such as these are also recommended as options.

Why did Adlerian psychology come into existence in the first place?

Reasons why you might feel "life is somehow difficult": The limitations of "causal reasoning" that traps you in the past and trauma.

Alfred Adler was a psychologist born in 1870 and died in 1937. The mainstream of psychology during his time was based on the idea that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, traumas, and physiological factors)."

For example, Freud emphasized "unconscious desires" and "sexual impulses" as causes. Psychiatry, too, followed a style of "recording symptoms and classifying cause and effect," essentially relying on "accumulating facts." As Adler interacted with patients as a physician, he began to have serious doubts about this "causal explanationism." This is what is called "causal theory."

A way of thinking to reclaim your life: A shift to a "teleological" approach that allows you to choose your own destiny.

Adler began to question this. In his youth, he started as an ophthalmologist and internist, treating many patients with lung diseases and tuberculosis. One day, he noticed that even with the same disease, the degree of recovery varied greatly from patient to patient. "Why is it that only those with a 'will to live' recover, even though they have the same disease?" The realization that this could not be explained by mere "physical differences" became Adler's first turning point. In other words, the idea began to take root in him that "people are not passive beings, but rather choose their own way of life." This is what is called "teleology."

After becoming a psychiatrist, Adler developed the idea that the same principles apply to emotions and behavior, parted ways with Freud, and founded what is now known as Adlerian psychology, or "individual psychology."

Letting go of extreme thinking: "Harmony between the individual and society," a concept also found in early Buddhism and Stoic philosophy.

Adlerian psychology is highly progressive in that it emphasizes one's own life and individuality, and advocates using those abilities to explore connections with society. It is a very important way of thinking in letting go of the Western notion that pursues only individual happiness, and the extreme Japanese notion that "the nail that sticks out gets hammered down."

I believe it is a very important branch of psychology and philosophy, alongside the early Buddhism of Gautama Siddhartha (Buddha/Shakyamuni) in northern India in the 6th century BC, and Stoic philosophy (Stoicism), which began with Zeno in ancient Greece in the early 3rd century BC and spread throughout ancient Greece and Rome.

Is it true that "contributing to others brings happiness"? The scientific basis of community feeling

The cause of feeling "lonely and struggling to live": A lack of "community feeling"

One of the core beliefs in Adlerian psychology is the idea that individuals have an innate capacity for social concern.

In Adlerian psychology, this is called "social interest," and it represents the feeling of being a part of society—whether family, community, or workplace—and the desire to connect with others and contribute. This can range from a family-centered perspective to a global one.

In short, Adlerian psychology argues that this lack of a sense of community—that is, the lack of the feeling that "I am contributing to communities on various scales"—is largely related to feelings of anxiety, unhappiness, isolation, inferiority complexes, and self-centered behavior.

Does being kind to others improve your health? The science of oxytocin and stress reduction.

Has research in neuroscience also shown that a sense of community is important?

This view aligns with many neurobiological perspectives on happiness, as stated in the textbook "A Counselor's Introduction to Neuroscience" (McHenry et al., 2014), and several studies suggest that expressing compassion and kindness may enhance relationships and mental and physical health (Fredrickson et al., 2013; Poulin & Holman, 2013).

Oxytocin is a hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted from the posterior pituitary gland. It is also known as the "love hormone" and is released when we feel social connection or when we care for someone.

Oxytocin is thought to be the source of feelings of happiness that come from having a sense of community, but it has also been found that the secretion of oxytocin does more than that; it also repairs physiological damage induced by stress.

A study by Poulin & Holman (2013) found that people who engaged in prosocial behavior had higher levels of endogenous oxytocin and fewer negative symptoms of stress. The authors suggest that prosocial behavior may be a way for people to stimulate the release of oxytocin and mitigate the negative effects of stress, demonstrating that oxytocin mitigates the adverse health effects of stress.

"Fulfillment through contribution" extends life more than short-term pleasure.

Another study by Fredrickson et al. (2013) reported that individuals who reported having a higher purpose, being connected to their community, and serving others had lower levels of inflammatory markers, while those who reported more hedonic experiences had elevated levels of pro-inflammatory genes and decreased levels of antiviral response.

Aristotle distinguished between "hedonia," which is happiness that pursues short-term pleasures such as enjoyment, satisfaction, and positive emotions, and "eudaimonia," which is happiness that comes from finding meaning and purpose in life and achieving long-term rather than short-term fulfillment. Here, however, it is interpreted that those who found eudaimonia in a social context were healthier.

These findings suggest, from a physiological and neurological perspective, that having a strong sense of community and contributing to the happiness of others has significant benefits for one's own mental stability and physical health.

Humankind survived through "cooperation with others": Human adaptive strategies as seen in the social brain hypothesis

Adler also referred to Darwin's theory of evolution, arguing that while other animals evolved physical strength, humans adapted to their environment by forming social groups, and that this is connected to the importance of having a sense of community (Adler & Iwai, 2024).

This idea is also proposed in the form of the social brain hypothesis from the perspective of current evolutionary biology, and can be said to be largely correct (Pedersen et al., 2014; Dunbar, 2024).

The social brain hypothesis posits that the large brains and advanced intelligence of primates evolved as adaptations to help them survive successfully within complex social groups.

This suggests that primates, including humans, have evolved to find happiness in social interaction itself.

Is the "Adlerian approach to interpersonal relationships," which claims to drastically reduce stress in interpersonal relationships, actually correct?

Adlerian interpersonal relationships emphasize the separation of tasks (clearly defining one's own responsibilities and those of others, focusing on one's own tasks, and refraining from interfering with others' tasks until requested), rejecting "vertical relationships" (hierarchical relationships) and emphasizing "horizontal relationships" (equal relationships). Encouragement (giving people facing difficulties the energy to overcome them and the confidence that they can do it) is also recommended.

This is somewhat similar to "assertiveness" (self-assertion that respects oneself and others), which originated in behavioral therapy in modern times.

Assertiveness is a communication method and attitude that respects oneself and others, and expresses one's opinions, requests, and feelings frankly, honestly, and on an equal footing. It is consistent with Adlerian interpersonal relationships in that it recommends direct language (a rejection of the "culture of unspoken understanding") and emphasizes equality.

While Adlerian interpersonal relationships themselves lack sufficient scientific validation, several studies have shown that assertiveness can reduce anxiety, stress, and depression (Cantero-Sánchez, 2021; ElBarazi et al., 2024).

Similar ideas are prominent in early Buddhism, Stoic philosophy, and early Christianity, emphasizing the importance of protecting oneself while also showing compassion and respect for others within the community (Bazzano, 2005; Goerger, 2017; Case, 2024).

Is it true that personality and thought patterns are formed in early childhood? Brain science reveals the secrets of "lifestyle."

Adlerian psychology considers early childhood experiences to be extremely important for the overall development of an individual's view of themselves, others, and the world (Adler, 1956).

The unconscious blueprint that determines your thought patterns: What is a "lifestyle"?

Adler (1956) argued that while individuals are born with certain tendencies, the manifestation of specific traits and talents is caused by the community (the surrounding environment).

In other words, this can be rephrased as the idea that "childhood experiences are qualitatively more important than adult experiences and are deeply involved in establishing one's 'lifestyle'."

In Adlerian psychology, "lifestyle" refers to an individual's unique "unconscious blueprint" for living their life, which is a fusion of childhood experiences and the need for belonging. It consists of three elements: self-concept (I am...), worldview (the world is...), and self-ideal (I want to be...).

Therefore, counselors in the Adlerian psychology school try to understand a person's inner world by deeply examining their family structure, including cultural and familial values, expectations of gender roles, the nature of relationships within their birth family, and their psychological birth order.

Neuroscience reveals: How early childhood environment determines adult emotional circuits.

What about from a neuroscience perspective?

Current brain development models suggest that early childhood experiences have a significant impact on an individual's awareness of themselves, others, and the world, and are thought to complement Adler's view on early childhood experiences (Andersen et al., 2008; McHenry et al., 2014; Perry, 2009; Siegel, 2012).

Brain development begins in the brainstem in the womb and progresses to the prefrontal cortex in early adulthood. Neurologists believe that the fundamental structures related to the brain's regulatory circuits, a key element in discussions of mental health, are primarily formed during the first five years of life (Andersen et al., 2008; Perry, 2009).

In this process, children often internalize the neural circuits of their closest caregivers during their early childhood. While individuals are born with certain genetic predispositions, environmental experiences significantly influence which genetic predispositions are expressed or suppressed through a process called "epigenetics" (Garrett, 2011; Siegel, 2012).

Epigenetics is a mechanism that controls gene function (expression) without changing the DNA base sequence itself. Beginners in biology or those who still hold onto outdated biological ideas tend to think that "behavior is rigidly determined by genes, although there are environmental constraints." However, current biology has proven that, through the action of epigenetics, "individuals have the potential to be either way, and specific genes can be expressed depending on the environment, leading to certain behaviors."

In other words, not only the directly inherited genes, but also the environment during childhood influences genetic expression, which can have positive or negative effects later in life.

For example, Fallon (2013) examined individuals who engaged in violent psychopathological behavior using brain scans. They found that the participants shared similar neural activity profiles and patterns, specifically "decreased brain function in certain parts of the frontal and temporal lobes, areas generally associated with self-control and empathy."

Up to this point, it could be said that the person has lost their sense of community due to a brain abnormality. In a sense, this is normal.

However, further investigation suggests that some individuals, due to poor upbringing environments, may exhibit neurological activity profiles similar to those of individuals with psychopathic tendencies, even without showing high levels of aggression or low levels of empathy.

In other words, as Adler hypothesized, this suggests the possibility that early childhood experiences influence genetic predispositions.

This is very close to the reality when you consider cases where children born in slums commit crimes or join gangs without realizing it, influenced by their parents and those around them, or cases where children of toxic parents become toxic parents themselves.

The roots of "social habits" as seen in attachment theory.

Furthermore, Adler's ideas closely align with another psychological concept, "attachment theory," to the point that it's almost a rephrasing of it.

Attachment theory, proposed by psychologist John Bowlby in his research from the 1960s to the 1970s, is a theory that states that the emotional bonds (attachment) that people form with others have a significant impact on their mental health and interpersonal relationships.

Attachment theory was groundbreaking in that it demonstrated that the mother-child relationship, as explained by Freud, is not established through the child learning that "she is the one who breastfed me (satisfaction of need)," but rather through an instinctive and innate mechanism by which the child seeks out their parent, similar to other monkeys.

However, this theory was completed not by directly referencing Adler's earlier work, but by drawing on clinical observations, comparative studies, and references to animal behavior.

Although this attachment theory is old, it is still widely accepted today, and many neuroscientists have shown that attachment is internalized as tacit memory, and that secure attachment is associated with neural structures that promote emotion regulation, fear regulation, harmony, insight, self-understanding, empathy, and morality (Schore & Schore, 2008; Siegel, 2012), while insecure attachment is associated with decreased emotional and social intelligence, executive function, and stress regulation (Perry, 2009).

As described above, Adler's ideas, which emphasized childhood experiences, are still supported today, albeit with some changes in terminology.

Is it true that "lies in life" exist? The psychology and brain's defense mechanisms for creating excuses.

Why it's easier to blame the past: The truth about causal theory and teleology

Teleology, in contrast to causalism which states that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, trauma, or physiological factors)," is the idea that "people choose their actions and emotions in the present in order to achieve some purpose, and the past causes cited are merely conveniently brought into play to suit that purpose."

This is a point that is often misunderstood because it is only written to this extent in textbooks, but even so, Adler did not deny that genes and the past are the cause of the current situation (Adler and Iwai, 2024).

However, I'm saying that the choice of the cause is ultimately up to the individual.

The true nature of "wanting to do something but being unable to act": "Life lies" used to protect oneself.

We often hear people say, "I can't get married because I don't have money and I'm not good-looking," but considering the counterexample of many people around the world who are married despite not having money or good looks, it's clear that even if there is a tendency for this to be the sole cause, it's wrong to attribute it to that. Nevertheless, this kind of expression is often seen.

While abuse can be a cause of delinquency, some people who experience it go on to achieve great success without resorting to crime.

Adler argues that we can choose whether to move in a constructive or unconstructive direction. Adler called the act of not taking action by making plausible excuses a "life lie."

Why do people make excuses? The psychology of "self-deception"

I believe the validity of teleology and the concept of lies in life, that is, the error of causal theory itself, can be easily proven by simply providing exceptions.

So why does the brain make excuses and tell "lies about life" when it should actually be taking action?

In modern terms, this can be seen as "self-deception" (a psychological process in which one deceives oneself to justify or ignore one's own conscience or the truth, even though one knows it) in order to resolve "cognitive dissonance" (psychological discomfort arising from the simultaneous existence of contradictory thoughts or actions in one's mind) in response to "procrastination" behavior caused by "anxiety."

How the brain avoids "unpleasant" things: The neuroscience of excuses

While humans can certainly achieve happiness and survival by maintaining the status quo and avoiding harm or potential threats, maintaining the status quo can also lead to negative consequences (Yamamori et al., 2023).

For example, when going through a job interview, you need to weigh the benefit of getting a new job against the risk of failing or experiencing embarrassment during the interview. While turning down one interview may have little impact on your life, habitually avoiding all job interviews will clearly lead to problems in the long run.

Consistently avoiding long-term benefits for the sake of short-term risks is called "procrastination" in psychology and "present bias" in behavioral economics. As the total of the lost rewards that could have been obtained through diligent effort accumulates, it has an increasingly negative impact, ultimately leading to missing out on important things in life.

Evolutionary biology and behavioral economics have pointed out that this is because humans tend to underestimate future benefits of survival, which are uncertain in the course of evolution (time discounting), and overestimate the risks they may face in the present (Rogers, 1994; Tomono, 2006).

Furthermore, neuroscientifically speaking, mouse experiments have shown that this anxiety process involves excessive strengthening of the connections between the hippocampus/amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (excessive theta wave synchronization), leading to overactivity of interneurons such as VIP ⁺ neurons, PV ⁺ neurons, and SST ⁺ neurons (Mack et al, 2023).

In other words, evolutionarily, the control system of the prefrontal cortex is overly active, making one more susceptible to anxiety. This leads to overestimating current failures and risks (punishments) over future rewards (things one wants to do), causing procrastination. However, because one also understands the downsides, cognitive dissonance occurs, and to resolve this, one resorts to self-deception by telling "lies about life."

In ancient times, when uncertainty was high and death was imminent, this could be considered a highly adaptive evolutionary trait, as it encouraged cautious behavior and promoted the maintenance of the status quo. However, in modern times, where technology has advanced and the risks of action have decreased, it can no longer be considered adaptive (Rogers, 1994; Rasmussen & Dover, 2006; Villmoare et al., 2024).

Early Buddhism and Stoic philosophy also warn against overestimating risks due to "delusions" and "attachments" (Ding et al., 2023). The same is true for early Christianity.

Is Adler's approach to "having courage (the ability to take action)" correct? A verification by modern science.

Adler states that "courage" is necessary to overcome "life's lies."

In Adlerian psychology, "courage" refers to the very "vitality" and "motivation" to overcome difficulties and challenges and to take positive action when faced with them.

Adler didn't actually list methods for summoning courage, but based on his intent, the following methods can be considered:

1. Start with small actions
2. Reducing unnecessary anxiety by separating issues
3. Using feelings of inferiority as motivation for growth
4. Be mindful of contributing to others
5. Strengthening self-determination

No need for sheer willpower or determination! How to cultivate "true courage (the ability to take action)" starting with small wins.

Of these, the idea of "starting with small actions" is now called "Small Wins" and was rediscovered by Weick (1984).

Small wins are small, achievable successes accumulated day by day towards achieving a larger goal. Weick argues that by breaking down large, complex problems into "small, attainable parts" and accumulating small wins, momentum and support can be gained, making change more likely.

For example, if you're studying, it could be something like memorizing vocabulary for just 10 minutes a day.

This leads to a sense of self-efficacy through achievement, creating a positive cycle of hope, belief, optimism, and confidence, as well as providing feedback for better strategies through learning through practice (Termeer & Dewulf, 2019).

The importance of "trying something, even if it's just a little, rather than planning something big" is still strongly supported today. Agile development, a software development methodology, is one example of this.

Similarities between "separation of tasks" and Stoic philosophy

On the other hand, there is insufficient research on whether separating issues truly leads to anxiety reduction. Intuitively, it seems correct, but further verification is needed.

However, the idea of separating tasks is almost identical to the concept expressed in ancient Greek Stoic philosophy and is a traditional idea (Delaney, 2023).

In particular, the ancient Roman philosopher Epictetus, who was a slave, argued that much of our troubles stem from trying to change things we cannot control, or from becoming trapped by them.

Two Weaknesses of Adlerian Psychology: How It Differs from Modern Science

I think there are two main differences between Adlerian psychology and modern thinking.

No inner conflict? A neuroscience perspective on "holism"

First, let's consider the concept of conflict. Adlerian psychology does not recognize conflict between consciousness and the unconscious. This is called holism.

This rejects the idea of "fighting against one's inner self," instead positing that internal conflict exists to achieve one's goals.

This interpretation is not very common in modern times; for example, in evolutionary psychology, the mind is often explained not as a unified entity but as being composed of separate parts (modules) divided according to their purpose. This is also recently referred to as domain specificity (Oda & Otsubo, 2023).

Another example is the "elephant and mahout" metaphor, proposed by Jonathan Haidt, a social psychologist famous for his work in positive psychology (Haidt, 2006). The "elephant and mahout" metaphor is also used in the early Buddhist scripture , the Dhammapada.

"Elephant" refers to the part of the mind that is separate from consciousness and is involved in reactions to stimuli and the formation of motivations through pleasure and displeasure, while "elephant handler" refers to the part that deals with consciousness, language, and rational long-term judgment.

The idea is that the elephant's behavior is a result of the evolutionarily more primitive development of the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, midbrain, and diencephalon, and that these are the main players, while the elephant handler, represented by the cerebral cortex, plays a supporting role, only able to slightly control the direction. In reality, conflicts between different parts of the cerebral cortex are also possible.

However, this is a matter of interpretation. There is no doubt that the elephant and the mahout work together towards some direction (purpose), and I believe that taking a holistic view of life is beneficial in that it prevents unconstructive thinking such as "I suffered again today because of the elephant," and even if the mahout's role is small, it allows us to positively receive messages from different parts of the brain.

How free are humans? A scientific debate surrounding "free will."

Next, Adlerian psychology is based on the premise that free will exists. Therefore, it believes that individuals can choose better, more constructive actions for themselves.

On the other hand, in modern times, the prevailing view is the absence of free will (determinism), which holds that all human psychology and behavior are determined by a combination of environmental and genetic factors.

While it might be possible to have a deep philosophical discussion about this, it seems that Adler wasn't interested in such philosophical debates, but rather in assuming the existence of free will and encouraging efforts to change the future.

In psychology, several studies have shown that experimentally giving participants anti-free will messages leads to increased cheating, increased aggression, decreased willingness to help, decreased readiness for exercise, and decreased self-control. While recent meta-analyses have suggested that this has a low impact (Genschow et al., 2023), it may be possible in limited situations.

Fundamentally, accurate prediction of the future is impossible because its initial conditions are unknown, and since it is undetermined, the fact that the future can be changed through learning remains unchanged even if free will does not exist.

Finally, it's important to note that Adler's arguments are about 100 years old, and therefore lack a comprehensive model of early childhood development, meaning they cannot fully explain all aspects of life by modern standards (Miller & Dillman, 2016).

For those who want to delve deeper into and practice Adlerian psychology.

This article has examined Adler's theory from an academic and scientific perspective. Adlerian psychology is not merely a way of thinking, but a tool that, with proper understanding and practice, can greatly improve the quality of interpersonal relationships and self-determination.

• "I want to thoroughly relearn Adlerian psychology from the basics."
• "I want to apply this to my work, counseling, and everyday communication."
• "I want to prove my systematic knowledge through a qualification."

If that sounds like you, check out the official Adlerian Psychology Certification Level 1 course, which you can take and study from home.

References

Alfred Adler, translated by Toshinori Iwai. 2024. Adler's Words in a Superb Translation: Essential Edition. Discover Twenty-One, Tokyo. 229pp. ISBN: 9784799330104

Bazzano, M. 2005. To feel with the heart of another: Notes on Adler and Zen Buddhism. In P. Prina, A. Miller, C. Shelley, & K. John (Eds.), UK Adlerian Year Book 2005 (pp.42-54). The Adlerian Society UK Institute for Individual Psychology. https://manubazzano.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/adler-and-buddhism.pdf

Cantero-Sánchez, FJ, León-Rubio, JM, Vázquez-Morejón, R., & León-Pérez, JM 2021. Evaluation of an assertiveness training based on the social learning theory for occupational health, safety and environment occupational. Sustainability 13(20): 11504. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011504

Case, B. 2024. Love's Limits in Paul of Tarsus and Seneca the Younger. Religions 15(10): 1169. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101169

Delaney, B. 2023. Reasons not to worry: how to be Stoic in chaotic times. Harper, 304pp. ISBN: 9780063314825 [=2024. Philosophy for living peacefully: A way of thinking for living in stressful times, learned from Stoicism. Discover Twenty-One, Tokyo. 421pp. ISBN: 9784799330784]

Ding, X., Ma, Y., Yu, F., & Abadal, LM 2023. The therapy of desire in times of crisis: lessons learned from Buddhism and Stoicism. Religions 14(2): 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020237

Dunbar, RI 2024. The social brain hypothesis–thirty years on. Annals of Human Biology 51(1): 2359920. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2024.2359920

ElBarazi, AS, Mohamed, F., Mabrok, M., Adel, A., Abouelkheir, A., Ayman, R., … & Mohamed, F. 2024. Efficiency of assertiveness training on the stress, anxiety, and depression levels of college students (Randomized control trial). Journal of Education and Health Promotion 13(1): 203. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_264_23

Genschow, O., Cracco, E., Schneider, J., Protzko, J., Wisniewski, D., Brass, M., & Schooler, JW 2023. Manipulating belief in free will and its downstream consequences: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 27(1): 52-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683221087527

Goerger, M. 2017. Moral Practice in Late Stoicism and Buddhist Meditation. Comparative Philosophy 8(1): 7. https://doi.org/10.31979/2151-6014(2017).080107

Haidt, J. 2006. The happiness hypothesis: finding modern truth in ancient wisdom. Basic Books, New York. 320pp. ISBN: 9780465028023 [=2011. The happiness hypothesis: ancient wisdom and modern scientific wisdom. Shin'yosha, Tokyo. 355pp. ISBN: 9784788512320]

Lavon, I., & Shifron, R. 2020. The use of early recollections in Adlerian psychotherapy: Evidence in neuroscience research. Psychology and Behavioral Science International Journal 15(2): 55590. http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/PBSIJ.2019.10.555908

Mack, NR, Deng, S., Yang, SS, Shu, Y., & Gao, WJ 2023. Prefrontal cortical control of anxiety: Recent advances. The Neuroscientist 29(4): 488-505. https://doi.org/10.1177/10738584211069071

Miller, R., & Dillman Taylor, D. 2016. Does Adlerian theory stand the test of time?: Examining individual psychology from a neuroscience perspective. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling 55(2): 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12028, https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=cifs_facpubs

Oda, Ryo & Otsubo, Yosuke. 2023. Expanding! Evolutionary Psychology. Asakura Shoten, Tokyo. 183pp. ISBN: 9784254523065

Pedersen, CA, Chang, SW, & Williams, CL 2014. Evolutionary perspectives on the role of oxytocin in human social behavior, social cognition and psychopathology. Brain Research 1580: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.07.033

Rasmussen, PR, & Dover, GJ 2006. The purposefulness of anxiety and depression: Adlerian and evolutionary views. The Journal of Individual Psychology 62(4): 366-396. ISSN: 1522-2527, https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-03417-003

Rogers, AR 1994. Evolution of time preference by natural selection. The American Economic Review 84(3): 460-481. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118062

Termeer, CJ, & Dewulf, A. 2019. A small wins framework to overcome the evaluation paradox of governing wicked problems. Policy and Society 38(2): 298-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14494035.2018.1497933

Tomono, Norio. 2006. Behavioral Economics: The Economy is Driven by "Emotions". Kobunsha, Tokyo. 397pp. ISBN: 9784334033545

Weick, KE 1984. Small wins: Redefining the scale of social problems. American Psychologist 39(1): 40-49. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.40

Villmoare, B., Klein, D., Liénard, P., & McHale, TS 2024. Evolutionary origins of temporal discounting: Modeling how time and uncertainty constrain optimal decision-making strategies across taxa. PloS One 19(11): e0310658. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310658

Yamamori, Y., Robinson, OJ, & Roiser, JP 2023. Approach-avoidance reinforcement learning as a translational and computational model of anxiety-related avoidance. eLife 12: RP87720. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.87720.4