Agapanthus and purple lily are both perennial plants belonging to the genus Agapanthus in the family Amaryllidaceae. While they are unique in that they both bear numerous blue, funnel-shaped flowers, making it unlikely to confuse them, the misconception that "Agapanthus cultivated for ornamental purposes = purple lily" is widespread worldwide, and inaccurate descriptions are common in Japan as well. However, the Agapanthus cultivated for ornamental purposes is actually Agapanthus praecox, which is different from purple lily (Agapanthus africanus). Their native distributions are different, and their perianth segment lengths and flower colors also differ. It will likely take a long time to correct this misconception, but I hope that readers of this article will recognize that they are different species. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Agapanthus.

What is Agapanthus lilyturf?

Agapanthus praecox, also known as Agapanthus, is a perennial plant native to South Africa that has been introduced to parts of the world and cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes.

Agapanthus africanus, also known as purple lily orchid, is a perennial plant native to South Africa. Although it has been introduced to some parts of the world, it is generally difficult to cultivate and is rarely grown. It is almost never seen in Japan.

Both are perennial plants belonging to the genus Agapanthus in the Amaryllidaceae family. Their most distinctive feature is that they bloom from late May to early August, producing 20 to 30 blue flowers in umbel inflorescences, with funnel-shaped corollas and six deeply lobed tips.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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This medicinal plant is widely used and highly valued in South African folk medicine (Younis et al., 2022). A somewhat unusual characteristic is that in its native habitat, it is known to flower after summer wildfires (Dwyer, 2022).

Since there are no similar groups, it's usually easy to identify them as belonging to the Agapanthus family, but they are often misunderstood by many people.

That means that "Agapanthus cultivated for ornamental purposes is not the same as purple lily."

Most gardening websites refer to "cultivated Agapanthus as purple lily," and the Japanese Wikipedia also states that "the most commonly cultivated species is Agapanthus africanus."

However, this is a complete lie. This is documented in Ylist, the most reliable list of Japanese names and scientific names, as well as in the Australian Botanical Guide and the English Wikipedia (Conran, 2005).

Agapanthus africanus, which is commonly known as Murasaki-kunshiran in Japanese, is actually far more difficult to cultivate and is not suitable as a garden plant. Murasaki-kunshiran can only be grown in rock gardens with well-drained, slightly acidic sandy soil. It is truly rare to find it cultivated in Japan.

The reason for this is unclear, but it may be related to the fact that the classification has been complicated and hybridization is easy (Sharaibi & Afolayan, 2017; Younis et al., 2022).

However, it seems reasonable to rename the globally common Agapanthus praecox as "purple lily orchid," but that would be confusing, so it doesn't seem likely to happen anytime soon.

What are the differences between cultivated Agapanthus and Clivia?

What are the specific differences between cultivated Agapanthus (Agapanthus praecox) and Clivia japonica?

First, although both Agapanthus praecox and Clivia japonica are distributed in South Africa, there is a difference in their distribution: Agapanthus praecox is found in the Eastern Cape (around Port Elizabeth), while Clivia japonica is found in the Western Cape (around Cape Town) (Zonneveld & Duncan, 2003).

These two species are distributed in isolation, so they do not interbreed in the wild.

Morphologically, Agapanthus praecox has stamens that are almost the same length as the perianth segments and the perianth segments are a light blue color, while Clivia japonica has stamens that are shorter than the perianth segments and the perianth segments are a dark blue color (Conran, 2005).

Also, although it's not mentioned in the botanical guide, it seems that Agapanthus praecox has considerably more flowers per inflorescence.

However, although this is how it is described in botanical guides, it's important to note that in Agapanthus praecox, the stamens also curl upwards, so from certain angles, the stamens often appear shorter than the perianth segments. In fact, I suspect there are cases where the stamens are slightly shorter.

Additionally, some varieties of Agapanthus praecox have white flowers.

However, you can assume that almost all agapanthus you see in Japan are Agapanthus praecox. There's a possibility that some hybrids of the Agapanthus genus might be mixed in, but that's not well understood.

Although two subspecies of Agapanthus praecox are known, the cultivated variety is considered to be Agapanthus praecox ssp. orientalis, which has flowers less than 5 cm long.

References

Conran, J. 2005. Agapanthaceae. In: R. Spencer (Ed.), Horticultural Flora of South-eastern Australia: The identification of garden and cultivated plants (Vol. 5 Flowering plants. Monocotyledons). University of New South Wales Press, Sydney. ISBN: 9780868408323, https://hortflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/taxon/adac1424-5340-11e7-b82b-005056b0018f

Dwyer, J. 2022. Agapanthus praecox ssp. orientalis Agapanthus, African lily. Australian Garden History 33(4): 25-27. https://doi.org/10.3316/informit.456427596377185

Sharaibi, OJ, & Afolayan, AJ 2017. Micromorphological characterization of the leaf and rhizome of Agapanthus praecox subsp. praecox Willd.(Amaryllidaceae). Journal of Botany 2017(1): 3075638. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3075638

Younis, NAM, Gomaa, AA, Ibrahim, AH, Abdelkader, MS, & Desoukey, SY 2022. The genus Agapanthus: A review of traditional uses, pharmacological and phytochemical attributes. South African Journal of Botany 150: 1168-1183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.09.029

Zonneveld, BJM, & Duncan, GD 2003. Taxonomic implications of genome size and pollen color and vitality for species of Agapanthus L'Heritier (Agapanthaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 241: 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-003-0038-6

Both Allium spectabile and Allium sibiricum belong to the genus Allium in the family Amaryllidaceae. Although they are introduced species in Japan, they are now very common, growing in places like between concrete blocks along roadsides. However, they are extremely often confused. To distinguish between these two species, you need to check the leaves and flowers. For flowers, record the color, and for leaves, record the width. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Allium.

What are Hatake-nira and Chives?

Nothoscordum gracile, also known as field chives, is a perennial plant native to southern North America and tropical America (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is believed to have been introduced to Japan in the middle of the Meiji era and has become naturalized in areas west of the Kanto region.

Nothoscordum bivalve, also known as false chives, is a perennial plant native to eastern North America. In Japan, it is cultivated for ornamental purposes, and some have escaped cultivation and become naturalized.

Both belong to the genus Allium in the Amaryllidaceae family. They are introduced species in Japan and were originally cultivated for ornamental purposes, but now they grow very commonly in places like between concrete blocks along roadsides.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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However, these two species are extremely similar, and were once even confused in botanical guides. Therefore, many people may not know how to distinguish between them.

What is the difference between *Hatake-nira* and *Nira-modoki*?

To distinguish between Allium sibiricum and Allium leek, it is necessary to examine the leaves and flowers (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, regarding the flowers, in Allium sieboldii, the base of the perianth segments is green and the midrib (the vertical line in the center of the perianth segment) is pinkish, whereas in Allium sieboldii, the base of the perianth segments is yellow and the midrib is colorless. This is the most important difference.

The "Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018" also mentions the difference that "Allium sieboldii has 10 to 15 flowers, while Allium sieboldii has 5 to 12 flowers." However, while Allium sieboldii tends to have more flowers, in actual field observations, there are often fewer than 10 flowers, so this may not be very helpful.

Regarding the leaves, there is a difference in that the leaves of *Allium sibiricum* are 4-10 mm wide, while those of *Allium sibiricum* are 2-4 mm wide.

Let's distinguish them based on these two points. Currently, there are very few wild individuals of *Lysimachia japonica*, and most of what grows in urban areas is likely *Lysimachia japonica*.

Are there any other similar species?

Other genera in the Amaryllidaceae family include Ipheion uniflorum and chives, and many people may confuse them with this plant.

For information on how to distinguish between these, please see the separate article.

What are the differences between Ipheion uniflorum, Ipheion leek, and Ipheion japonica? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Are they edible?

All three species—Ipheion uniflorum, Allium sibiricum, and Allium sibiricum—belong to the Amaryllidaceae family, Allioideae subfamily, and share the name "nira" (leek). They are common perennial plants found in fields and urban areas. However, their confusing names can make it difficult for those unfamiliar with these three species to distinguish between them...

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References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ipheion uniflorum, chives, and field chives all belong to the Amaryllidaceae family, Allioideae subfamily, and share the name "chives." They are common perennial plants found in fields and urban areas. Due to their confusing names, people who have never seen these three species may find it difficult to distinguish them. However, there are significant taxonomic differences, and they can be easily distinguished by examining the shape of their flowers. Regarding the edibility of Ipheion uniflorum and field chives, there is a lot of vague information on the internet with unclear sources. While field chives are edible, the situation with Ipheion uniflorum is unclear, so it's best not to eat them. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and uses of plants with "chives" in their name.

What are Ipheion flavescens, chives, and field chives?

Ipheion uniflorum, also known as Western Star-of-Bethlehem, is a perennial plant native to South America (Argentina and Uruguay). It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes and was introduced to Japan during the Meiji era as an ornamental plant, where it has become naturalized in various regions.

Chives (Allium tuberosum) are said to be distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Pakistan, India, and China. They are a perennial plant that grows widely on embankments, field edges, and vacant lots. Because they have been cultivated in fields since ancient times as a vegetable for their leaves, it is not well known whether they are truly wild in Japan or whether they spread after being cultivated. In Japanese cuisine, they are used in soups, as a condiment, in blanched dishes, and stir-fries, as well as in Chinese and Korean cuisine. Typical dishes using chives include stir-fried liver and chives, chive omelet, chive dumplings, and gyoza.

Nothoscordum gracile, also known as field chives, is a perennial plant native to southern North America and tropical America. It is believed to have been introduced to Japan around the middle of the Meiji era and has become naturalized in areas west of the Kanto region.

All of these belong to the Amaryllidaceae family, Allioideae subfamily, and are called "nira" (leeks). They are common perennial plants that can be found in fields and urban areas.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona…

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Morphologically, they share the common characteristic of having a superior ovary (where the ovary, which develops into the fruit, is located above the petals). Therefore, if you observe the flowers closely, you will be able to see a green mass on top of the petals.

Because of their confusing names, people who have never seen these three species before may find it difficult to distinguish between them.

In particular, a variety of chives (Allium tuberosum) whose flower stalks and the buds at their ends are eaten is sometimes called "flower chives," which can also be a source of confusion.

What are the differences between Ipheion uniflorum, Ipheion leek, and Ipheion japonica?

However, upon closer observation, it becomes clear that these three species are quite different despite the similarity of their names (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, let's look at the classification: Ipheion uniflorum belongs to the genus Ipheion, chives belong to the genus Allium, and field chives belong to the genus Allium. Therefore, it can be expected that there are significant differences between them.

The specific difference is that in chives and wild chives, the perianth segments (the petal-like parts, so called because there is no distinction between petals and sepals) are free or only fused at the base, whereas in star-of-Bethlehem, the perianth segments are completely fused, forming a corolla similar to that of a sympetalous flower.

Regarding the perianth segments, other differences include the fact that chives and field chives are primarily white, although they may have some color, and are small, while flowering chives (Ipheion uniflorum) are purple to pink and are larger.

Regarding the flowering seasons, Ipheion uniflorum blooms from March to April, chives from August to October, and field chives from May to June.

While chives and wild chives may often seem quite similar, a recommended way to distinguish them is to check the filaments of the stamens (the stalks that support the yellow anthers).

In chives, the filaments are thin and long, growing outwards, whereas in wild chives, they are flat, broad, and grow almost vertically, appearing as if multiple stamens are encasing the pistil in a tube-like fashion.

Furthermore, while chives do not have any special color at the base of their perianth segments, in wild chives (Allium macrostemon) the base of the perianth segments is green.

While it's difficult to distinguish them solely by their leaves, it's worth noting that both Ipheion uniflorum and chives have a distinctive smell, similar to that found in stir-fried chives, whereas Ipheion uniflorum does not. Also, be absolutely sure not to confuse them with the poisonous daffodil.

There are differences between Japanese daffodils and regular daffodils! Are they poisonous? How do they differ from chives? Where are they native to? Why did the flowers evolve to bloom in winter?

Daffodils are a very popular ornamental plant in Japan, blooming in winter. However, a little research reveals that they are sometimes called "Japanese daffodils" (Nihon-zuisen) and sometimes simply referred to as "daffodils." Is there any difference between Japanese daffodils and regular daffodils? Japanese daffodils are native to China…

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Are Ipheion uniflorum and Ipheion japonica edible?

While chives are certainly edible, are wild chives (Ipheion uniflorum) and field chives (Ipheion uniflorum) also edible?

While some Japanese websites claim that field chives (Hatake-nira) are inedible, they are used overseas as a garlic substitute and spice (PFAF, 2024). However, they don't have the same smell as chives, so they may not be eaten in the same way.

On the other hand, the Japan Pharmaceutical Information Center's Garden website states that "the bulbs of Ipheion are poisonous and contain triterpene glycosides" (Japan Pharmaceutical Information Center, 2024).

However, based on this description, the author also searched the literature, including in English, but could not find anything that mentioned this. The toxicity of the leaves is also unknown.

While Japanese websites frequently mention that it is "toxic," the source of these claims is unclear.

However, it is known that the bulbs contain phlostanol saponins (2-4) and ecdysterone (1), a known plant ecdysteroid (Nakamura et al., 1994). Steroidal saponins in general can exhibit membrane permeability and hemolytic effects (such as rupturing red blood cell membranes), and are known to have properties that can cause gastrointestinal irritation, hemolysis, and general toxicity (Podolak et al., 2010).

While there's no concrete evidence, I think it's safer not to eat it. Of course, "flower chives," a variety of chives, are perfectly edible.

Are there any other similar species? What are the differences between this and false chives?

I've focused on explaining just three species, but each genus contains many other known species. I'll explain how to distinguish them in a separate article.

The genus Allium includes many other species, so it's necessary to distinguish them from each other.

What are the differences between Japanese shallots (rakkyo), wild shallots (yamarakkyo), and thread shallots? How do they differ from yellow thread shallots (kii-itorakkyo)? This article explains how to distinguish between similar species.

Japanese shallots (rakkyo), wild shallots (yamarakkyo), and thread shallots (itorakkyo) all belong to the genus Allium in the Amaryllidaceae family and share the common characteristic of having the word "rakkyo" in their Japanese names. Japanese shallots are eaten as pickled shallots, while wild shallots and thread shallots are wild species native to Japan…

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The genus Nothoscordum also includes a very similar species called Nothoscordum bivalve, and it is important to distinguish between them. This species is often confused with others.

What's the difference between *Hatake-nira* and *Nira-modoki*? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Both Allium spectabile and Allium sibiricum belong to the genus Allium in the Amaryllidaceae family. Although they are introduced species in Japan, they are now very common, growing in places like between concrete blocks along roadsides. However, they are extremely often confused. To distinguish between these two species, it's necessary to examine their leaves and flowers. Regarding the flowers…

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Although it closely resembles Ipheion uniflorum, the yellow-flowered Ipheion uniflorum , Nothoscordum felipponei, also belongs to the genus Ipheion.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. (2018). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 Electronic Edition. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. ISBN: 9784991053726

Japan Pharmaceutical Information Center. (2024). Hananira (Japanese star anise). Garden. Japan Pharmaceutical Information Center.https://www.japic.or.jp/garden/index.php?mod=detail&id=299

Nakamura, O., Mimaki, Y., Sashida, Y., Nikaido, T., & Ohmoto, T. (1994). Three new furostanol saponins from the bulbs of Ipheion uniflorum. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 42 (5), 1116-1122. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.42.1116

PFAF. (2024). Nothoscordum gracile Slender false garlic. PFAF Plant Database. Plants For A Future. https://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Nothoscordum+gracile

Podolak, I., Galanty, A., & Sobolewska, D. (2010). Saponins as cytotoxic agents: a review. Phytochemistry Reviews, 9 (3), 425-474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-010-9183-z

Snowdrops and snowflakes both belong to the Amaryllidaceae family and are very commonly cultivated in Japan as ornamental plants that bloom in winter. Both are native to Europe, and because they are both white with green spots and have similar names, they may be confused. However, the two species belong to different genera and can be easily distinguished by checking the inflorescence, perianth segments, and flowering period. A significant characteristic of both species is that their perianth segments are "green," which is known to serve as a nectar guide for insects that visit the flowers, and also allows for photosynthesis. This article will explain the classification and ecology of snowdrops and snowflakes.

What are snowdrops and snowflakes?

Galanthus nivalis, also known as snowdrop or galanthus, is a perennial plant native to Europe (Spain to Ukraine) that grows along roadsides and in open forests, and is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes.

Leucojum aestivum, also known as snowflake or lily-of-the-valley daffodil, is native to Europe (from the UK to Ukraine), Turkey, and Iran. It grows along roadsides, in fields, and in wastelands, and is a perennial plant cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes.

Both belong to the Amaryllidaceae family and are very commonly cultivated in Japan as ornamental plants that bloom in winter.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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As snowdrops are primarily native to Europe, they have strong ties to the region. In particular, snowdrops frequently appear in Christian legends and are often planted in monasteries.

Morphologically, the leaves have the typical parallel veins of monocots, and the flower shape is white with green spots. Furthermore, the names are similar, which may lead to confusion.

What is the difference between a snowdrop and a snowflake?

However, these two species are completely different.

This can be seen from the fact that snowdrops belong to the genus *Euphorbia*, while snowflakes belong to the genus *Euphorbia*.

Several specific differences can be cited (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2002).

Regarding the inflorescence, snowdrops have only one flower per inflorescence, while snowflakes have 2 to 7 flowers per inflorescence.

Regarding the flower stalks, snowdrops have hollow stalks, meaning they are hollow inside, while snowflakes have solid stalks.

Regarding the perianth segments (the parts that correspond to petals, so called because they are indistinguishable from the sepals), snowdrops have two asymmetrical types of perianth segments, consisting of three long outer perianth segments and three short inner perianth segments, while snowflakes have six perianth segments that are all the same shape.

It might sound complicated when explained in words, but the shape of the flower should make it immediately clear.

In Japan, the flowering seasons also differ slightly: snowdrops bloom from February to March, while snowflakes bloom from March to April.

The names are said to originate from the German "Schneetropfen (Snow-drop)," which refers to teardrop-shaped pearl earrings that were popular in the 16th and 17th centuries, while "snowflake" comes from the English word "snowflake," meaning "snowflake."

Besides the snowdrop, there is a closely related species called Galanthus elwesii, also known as the giant snowdrop. However, Galanthus elwesii differs from the snowdrop in that the base and tip (or the entire base to tip) of the inner perianth segments are green. In the snowdrop, only the tips of the inner perianth segments are green.

How are snowdrops pollinated? The green color of the perianth segments serves as both a "nectar guide" and a "photosynthesis" mechanism!?

Snowdrops bloom in the late winter when it's still cold, but how do they get pollinated?

While this is not something we can observe in Japan, where only cultivated snowdrops are found, wild snowdrops are being extensively studied in Europe.

According to these studies, snowdrops are thought to be primarily pollinated by European honeybees and bumblebees (Prokop et al., 2020). Specifically, bumblebees include the European bumblebee, Bombus terrestris.

Snowdrops have green tips on their inner perianth segments, which have long been thought to serve as "nectar guides" to attract pollinators. Recent experiments using bumblebees have now confirmed this.

However, it seems that the role of this green color is not simply to act as a nectar guide.

Another study found that this green area contains chlorophyll, meaning it is capable of photosynthesis (Aschan & Pfanz, 2006). While the amount of photosynthesis here may not be very large, it can be used to supplement energy storage for growth.

Considering this, the green area serves a dual purpose: it acts as a nectar guide while also providing protection from the reduced sunlight in winter.

In most plants, synthesizing the pigments in nectar guides requires a considerable amount of energy, so this can be considered a very rational evolutionary step. Since several other plants, such as snowdrops, also have green nectar guides, convergent evolution may be at play.

Why do snowdrops bloom facing downwards?

By the way, snowdrop flowers face downwards. Is there any meaning to this?

Generally, flowers that face downwards are often species adapted to pollination by bees with strong muscles that can hang down, and this seems to be a good example of snowdrops, which are visited by bumblebees.

However, experiments have shown that European bumblebees actually prefer snowdrop flowers that have been artificially turned upwards (Prokop et al., 2020).

From this, it is thought that, sequentially, the flowers first became downward-facing, and then evolved to have green nectar guides so that they could still attract the attention of bumblebees.

But if that's the case, why did the flowers end up facing downwards in the first place?

Researchers currently believe this is a way to avoid snow damage. Indeed, since snowdrops bloom from late winter, it seems logical that they bloom facing downwards to avoid the reduced visibility, weight, and effects of low temperatures caused by accumulated snow.

References

Aschan, G., & Pfanz, H. 2006. Why snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis L.) tepals have green marks?. Flora-Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants 201(8): 623-632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flora.2006.02.003

Ikeda, Kenichi. 2020. Records of Bombus terrestris (European bumblebee) visiting flowers in Kobe City, confirmed in 2006. Kiberihamushi 43(2): 56-57. ISSN: 1884-9377, https://www.konchukan.net/pdf/kiberihamushi/Vol43_2/kiberihamushi_43_2_56-57.pdf

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2002. Flora of North America (Vol. 26 Liliidae). Oxford University Press, ‎Oxford. 752pp. ISBN: 9780195152081

Prokop, P., Zvaríková, M., Ježová, Z., & Fedor, P. 2020. Functional significance of flower orientation and green marks on tepals in the snowdrop Galanthus nivalis (Linnaeus, 1753). Plant Signaling & Behavior 15(11): 1807153. https://doi.org/10.1080/15592324.2020.1807153

Japanese shallots (rakkyo), wild shallots (yamarakkyo), and thread shallots (itorakkyo) all belong to the genus Allium in the Amaryllidaceae family and share the common feature of having the word "rakkyo" in their Japanese names. Rakkyo is eaten as pickled shallots, while wild shallots and thread shallots are well-known as wild and cultivated species in Japan. In addition to having bulbs and reddish-purple flowers, they are sometimes confused with each other because they can either grow wild or be cultivated . However, they can be clearly distinguished by carefully observing the shape of their flowers and leaves. Yellow thread shallots are now considered a different species from thread shallots, but are confused due to outdated classifications. The shape of their flowers is clearly different. This article will explain the classification of Japanese shallots (rakkyo), wild shallots (yamarakkyo), and thread shallots.

What are Japanese shallots, mountain shallots, and itorakkyo?

Rakkyo (Allium chinense), also known as Japanese shallot, is a perennial plant native to China and cultivated in East Asia. Its bulb is used for medicinal and culinary purposes. It is unknown when it was introduced to Japan, but the earliest reliable evidence distinguishing it from chives is found in the "Shinsen Jikyo," a dictionary compiled by the monk Shōjū between 898 and 901 (Heian period) (Fujii, 1985). In Japan, it was originally used medicinally and also prepared in various ways, but currently, it is mostly used as "rakkyo-zuke," a pickled shallot in sweet and sour vinegar. It has escaped cultivation in areas around fields and in urban areas.

Allium thunbergii, also known as mountain scallion, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu (south of Akita Prefecture), Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; the Korean Peninsula; China; and Taiwan. It grows in mountain grasslands and on embankments. The white-flowered variety is Allium thunbergii f. albiflorum.

Allium virgunculae var. virgunculae, also known as thread chives, is a perennial herb found only on Hirado Island in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. Related varieties include Allium koshikiense var. koshikiense, found on Koshiki Island in Kagoshima Prefecture, and Allium yakushimense var. yakushimense, found on Yakushima Island in Kagoshima Prefecture.

All of them belong to the genus Allium in the Amaryllidaceae family and share the commonality of having the word "rakkyo" (Japanese shallot) in their Japanese names.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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Morphologically, it belongs to the genus Allium, and unlike other Amaryllidaceae plants, it shares the characteristic of having separate perianth segments, or only short and fused at the base.

Furthermore, these three species, within the Allium genus, share several key characteristics: they all produce narrow, oval-shaped bulbs (a type of bulb formed by numerous thickened leaves that store nutrients and overlap around the stem to form a spherical shape) underground; their leaves are broadly linear; and their flowers are reddish-purple.

Therefore, many people may confuse them and not know how to distinguish between them.

What are the differences between Japanese shallots (rakkyo), wild shallots (yamarakkyo), and thread shallots (itorakkyo)?

These three species can be distinguished by observing their leaves and flowers (Wu & Raven, 2000; Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, there is a difference in that the pedicels of the flowers of the Japanese shallot (rakkyo) are long, measuring 20-30 mm in length, while those of the mountain shallot (yamarakkyo) and thread shallot (itorakkyo) are short, measuring 12-15 mm in length.

The term "small floral pattern" might be a bit technical and difficult to understand, but in this context, you can think of it as the elongated part connecting the flower to the plant body.

Due to the difference in the length of the flower stalks, the inflorescence of wild garlic and itorakkyo (a type of wild garlic) will appear more compact and densely flowered.

Regarding wild onion and italian onion, the difference is that wild onion has flat leaves that are 2-4 mm wide and have three corners, while italian onion has cylindrical leaves that are very narrow, only 1-2 mm wide. This is as the names suggest.

Also, since wild garlic has more flowers than itarakkyo (a type of wild garlic), it appears to bloom even more densely.

The above methods should help you distinguish between them, but there may be times when you cannot identify the flowers of Japanese shallots (rakkyo) and wild shallots (yamarakkyo).

Even in that case, you can distinguish them by the fact that shallot leaves are 1-3 mm wide and have 3-5 corners.

One unique characteristic of Japanese shallots, not found in other varieties, is that their leaves wither in summer, remain green from autumn to winter, and their bulbs have a thin, membranous outer layer, but this should only be considered as a reference. Note that wild shallots and thread shallots are not commonly eaten (although they are likely edible). Their names likely stem from their similar appearance.

What is the difference between Itorakkyo and Ki-itorakkyo?

When you search for "Itorakkyo" on the internet, Google Search suggests a different species called "Kiiitorakkyo (紀伊糸辣韮) Allium kiiense," and many articles based on an outdated classification that states "Kiiitorakkyo is a type of Itorakkyo" appear in the search results. Perhaps because of this, many photos of Kiiiitorakkyo are also found that are presented as Itorakkyo. However, these are incorrect, and they have been treated as separate species since 2009 (Takahashi & Hotta, 2009).

The specific differences are that in *Allium schoenoprasum*, the flowers open upwards and the inner perianth segments are flat, while in *Allium schoenoprasum*, the flowers open vertically or diagonally downwards and the inner perianth segments are boat-shaped.

Regarding their distribution, *Allium thunbergii* is found only on Hirado Island in Nagasaki Prefecture, while *Allium schoenoprasum* is distributed throughout the Kii Peninsula.

The morphological differences between the related varieties, *Allium schoenoprasum*, *Allium koshikiense*, and *Allium yakushimaense*, are minor and will be omitted here. Those interested in more details should refer to research papers.

Are there any other similar species?

The genus Allium (or onion) includes a vast number of species that are commonly eaten. Please see the separate article for details on those species.

What are the differences between Ipheion uniflorum, Ipheion leek, and Ipheion japonica? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Are they edible?

All three species—Ipheion uniflorum, Allium sibiricum, and Allium sibiricum—belong to the Amaryllidaceae family, Allioideae subfamily, and share the name "nira" (leek). They are common perennial plants found in fields and urban areas. However, their confusing names can make it difficult for those unfamiliar with these three species to distinguish between them...

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References

Fujii, Yoshiyoshi. 1985. The introduction and spread of Japanese shallots. Research Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University 37: 159-168. https://repository.lib.tottori-u.ac.jp/records/4006

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Takahashi, H., & Hotta, M. 2009. A taxonomic revision of the Allium virgunculae complex (Alliaceae). Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 60(2): 79-86. https://doi.org/10.18942/apg.KJ00005878344

Wu, ZY, & Raven, PH (Eds.). 2000. Flora of China (Vol. 24 Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. 431pp. ISBN: 9780915279838

Lycoris radiata (red spider lily), Lycoris radiata var. alba, Lycoris radiata var. alba, and Lycoris aurea are all perennial plants belonging to the genus Lycoris in the family Amaryllidaceae. They are very familiar to Japanese people because they are poisonous and bloom in clusters in autumn. However, there are many varieties, and people who have never seen them may not know the difference. Distinguishing between Lycoris radiata var. alba and Lycoris radiata var. alba and Lycoris aurea var. alba is easy; they can be distinguished by the color of their flowers. Distinguishing between Lycoris radiata var. alba and Lycoris radiata var. alba is difficult; it is determined by whether or not they produce viable seeds, but this is difficult to observe, so if you really want to distinguish them, the flowering period and the intensity of the flower color will also be important. Other easily confused varieties and cultivars are also introduced. This article will explain the classification of Lycoris radiata species.

What are Lycoris radiata, Lycoris radiata var. alba, Lycoris radiata var. alba, Lycoris radiata var. alba, and Lycoris radiata var. alba?

The red spider lily, Lycoris radiata var. radiata, is also known as Manjushage. It is thought to be a mutation of the Chinese red spider lily, which was introduced to Japan in ancient times and spread there. Currently, it is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands, and is a perennial plant that grows in clusters along the edges of fields, on embankments, and in cemeteries (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Lycoris radiata var. pumila, also known as Chinese spider lily (Lycoris radiata var. pumila), is a perennial plant distributed in China, Korea, and Nepal, growing in shady or damp places on slopes and on rocky riverbanks (Wu & Raven, 2000). Since the Japanese name "Kohiganbana" is more frequently searched, we will refer to it as Kohiganbana below.

White-flowered red spider lily (Lycoris x albiflora) is a hybrid of Lycoris radiata and Lycoris aurea. It is distributed in Japan, China (Jiangsu Province), and Korea, and is a perennial plant that grows near houses, such as on rice paddy ridges and embankments.

Lycoris traubii, also known as the bell-wielding narcissus, is a perennial herb that grows in grasslands and forest edges, distributed in Kyushu and the southwestern islands of Japan, as well as in China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, and Vietnam.

All of these are perennial plants belonging to the genus Lycoris in the family Amaryllidaceae. In terms of their relationship with humans, the entire plant, including the bulb, contains alkaloids such as lycorine and galantamine, and is known to have pharmacological effects such as cough suppressant, expectorant, analgesic, antihypertensive, and emetic properties. They are also known for being planted to deter moles and mice from underground (though it is unclear if this is scientifically correct), and for becoming a devouring food source when exposed to water.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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Morphologically, a major characteristic, similar to other species in the genus Lycoris, is that the leaves and flower stalks emerge at different times (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). In other words, you cannot find the leaves when the flowers are in bloom. The timing of leaf loss varies depending on the species, but in the Lycoris species mentioned here, the leaves emerge in late autumn and wither in spring.

Furthermore, among the species of the Lycoris genus, the species mentioned here are characterized by their curled perianth segments and flowers with very long stamens and pistils that bloom around September to October. In addition, the edges of the perianth segments are wavy, and the leaf width is 8 mm or less.

Therefore, people who haven't seen it before might not notice the difference.

It's especially difficult to distinguish between the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) and the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata var. japonica).

What are the differences between Lycoris radiata, Lycoris radiata var. alba, Lycoris radiata var. alba, and Lycoris radiata var. alba?

However, distinguishing between Lycoris radiata, Lycoris radiata var. alba, and Lycoris radiata var. alba

First and foremost, it's important to understand that the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) is also known as Manjushage, and that they refer to the exact same species.

The most important thing is the color of the flower. Flowers of the Lycoris genus are composed of "perianth segments." They are called this because the petals and sepals cannot be distinguished.

The perianth segments differ in color: red in Lycoris radiata and Lycoris radiata, white in Lycoris radiata, and yellow in Lycoris aurea. It's obvious at a glance, isn't it?

There are also slight differences in the leaves, which can be seen when the flowers are not in bloom. The leaves of Lycoris radiata and Lycoris radiata are 0.5 cm wide, those of Lycoris radiata are 1.5 cm wide, and those of Lycoris radiata are 0.8 cm wide.

It may be difficult to distinguish between species of the Lycoris genus when only the leaves are visible, but this might be helpful as a reference.

What is the difference between Lycoris radiata and Lycoris radiata var. japonica?

The question is, what is the difference between the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) and the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata)?

The crucial difference is that the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) has 2n=33 chromosomes, making it triploid and therefore sterile (it does not produce viable seeds), while the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) has 2n=22 chromosomes, making it diploid and therefore fertile (it produces viable seeds) (Nishiyama, 1939).

I won't go into a detailed explanation of chromosomes, but essentially, because the red spider lily has three sets of chromosomes, it cannot undergo proper meiosis and therefore cannot produce seeds. For this reason, red spider lilies do not spread their distribution far and wide through seeds, and can only reproduce by transplanting their underground bulbs by humans or through vegetative reproduction.

It is believed that the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) originated from a mutation of the Chinese red spider lily (Lycoris radiata), which was then introduced to Japan. In other words, most of the red spider lilies in Japan are clones.

However, recent studies have shown that, although extremely rare, some plants produce fertile seeds (Seto et al., 2015). The mechanism is not fully understood, but it is possible that in very rare cases, meiosis is successful.

As explained above, these descriptions do not describe morphological characteristics, and there are exceptions, so it will be impossible to distinguish between the two types at a glance.

According to a fairly old paper, the following are some of the differences that are useful for distinguishing between the two.

Regarding the bulbs, there is a difference: the bulbs of the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) are hard, while those of the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) are soft.

Regarding the flowering period, there is a difference: the red spider lily blooms from mid- to late September, while the small red spider lily blooms in early September.

Regarding the color of the flowers, there is a difference between the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) and the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata var. japonica): the red spider lily is a deep crimson, while the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata var. japonica) is a pale crimson.

Regarding the leaves, there is a difference in texture: the leaves of the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) are hard to the touch, while those of the small red spider lily (Lycoris radiata) are soft.

In addition, although not mentioned in this paper, it is said on the internet that Lycoris radiata has smaller flowers and fewer flowers per inflorescence. However, I have not been able to find any data on the specific number. Further investigation is needed to determine if this is correct, but I have included a photo of a flower with fewer blossoms that may fit this description.

Because the morphological distinctions are so subtle, they are sometimes not even differentiated in other countries.

What are other varieties or cultivars of the red spider lily?

Several other varieties and cultivars of the red spider lily are also known.

Lycoris radiata f. bicolor is almost identical in shape to the common spider lily (Lycoris radiata), but is a variety in which the edges of the perianth segments and parts of the stamens and pistil are faded (Yonezawa, 1989). The name "bicolor" comes from the fact that the boundary between the two colors is clearly defined.

Lycoris radiata var. kazukoana is a variety with small flowers, almost flat perianth segments, perianth segments that do not curl strongly, and flowers that are pink to white. It is often confused with Lycoris radiata var. japonica, but its perianth segments are straight and the color boundaries are not clearly defined. It is also thought to be a malformation caused by herbicides (Iwatsuki et al., 2016).

The paper (Yonezawa, 1989) includes two color photographs, so if you're unsure, please check them.

References

Iwatsuki, K., Boufford, DE, & Oba, H. 2016. Flora of Japan (Vol. IV-b). Kodansha, Tokyo. 352pp. ISBN: 9784061546080

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Nishiyama, 3. 1939. Chromosome number of Lycoris from China. Journal of Genetics 15(2): 83-85. https://doi.org/10.1266/jjg.15.83

Seto, Yoshihisa; Takeichi, Sanae; and Nakajima, Katsuyuki. 2015. Morphological observations of growth and first flowering in two cases of seedling Lycoris radiata. Kanagawa Natural History Materials 36: 7-10. https://doi.org/10.32225/nkpmnh.2015.36_7

Wu, ZY, & Raven, PH (Eds.). 2000. Flora of China (Vol. 24 Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. 431pp. ISBN: 9780915279838

Yonezawa, Nobumichi. 1989. A new variety and new cultivar of Lycoris radiata. Phytogeography and Taxonomy 37(2): 73-74. https://kanazawa-u.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/49655

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. Terminal branches may also be leaf-like (asparagus and Ruscus genera). Flowers are solitary at the stem apex or leaf axils, or borne in diverse racemes or umbels. They bear bisexual flowers. Perianth segments are free or fused, with three outer and three inner perianth segments, some identical and some heteromorphic. The ovary is usually superior. Some species produce berries, while others produce capsules. They are widely distributed worldwide, comprising 153 genera and approximately 2,500 species. There are 14 genera and 56 species in Japan. The Asparagaceae family includes most of the Asparagine subfamily, which is characterized by berries and rhizomes, as well as the Ophiopogonoideae subfamily, the entire Scilloideae subfamily, and the genus Hosta, which was previously classified as the Asphodeloideae subfamily. Along with the Hemerocallisaceae family and the Amaryllidaceae family, it belongs to the Asparagales order.

This article provides a comprehensive, illustrated guide to plants belonging to the Asparagaceae family.

The basic information is based on Tsukamoto (1994) and the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018). Photographs are replaced as better ones become available. While the identifications are made by the author, please note that they may be changed without notice if misidentifications are found.

No. 0557 Ornithogalum umbellatum

This perennial plant is native to Europe and Southwest Asia, and is cold-hardy. Its bulb is spherical and relatively small, about 3 cm in diameter, but it readily produces small bulbs and propagates easily. The leaves are somewhat broad, 2-16 mm in length. In typical specimens, the midrib is white. It bears 12-20 flowers in a cymose inflorescence, and the lower flower stalk is long, about 10 cm. The flowers are 2.5 cm in diameter, white in color, with the outside of the perianth petals being green with white stripes on the ground. The flowers open around 11 a.m. and close around 3 p.m. The flowering season is April. It is a naturalized plant native to the Mediterranean region. It was introduced to Japan in the early Meiji period as an ornamental plant. It has been confused with Ornithogalum umbellatum, which has a corymbose inflorescence with 6-10 flowers.

No.0557.a False Seaweed (Albuca bracteata)

This perennial herb has a bulb that grows up to 10 cm in diameter. The leaves are basal, linear, 30-60 cm long and 2-4 cm wide, with a pointed, tail-like tip. 50-100 flowers are densely borne in corymbs or racemes on flower stalks 30-80 cm tall. The flowers are 2.5 cm in diameter with six perianth segments; the inside is white with a green stripe down the center, and the outside has prominent, thick green stripes. The fruit is a capsule. It is a subterranean plant whose leaves wither during droughts. Native to South Africa (Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces), it can also be found in tropical East Africa, although it may have been introduced there. It inhabits forests, forest edges, enclosed woodlands, and protected slopes. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No. 0558 Nishikiyuri (Lilium orientalis)

A bulbous perennial herb, also known as hyacinth. It has a bulb and in early spring produces 4 to 6 fleshy leaves about 2 cm wide and 20 cm long, with a thick flower stalk rising from the center of the basal leaves. In April, it bears numerous funnel-shaped flowers about 3 cm in diameter in racemes. The perianth is 6-lobed, with the lobes spreading and reversing. There are 6 stamens, attached to the middle of the flower tube. The fruit is a 3-angled capsule with 3 chambers, and it dehisces with 3 petals. The wild species has bluish-purple flowers, but there are horticultural varieties with pink, red, white, and yellow flowers. The bulb is a layered bulb. The mother bulb remains and enlarges without being consumed, and in the case of large bulbs, it is composed of scales formed over 3 years, and the outside is covered with a thin, papery outer skin. The color of the outer skin is almost the same as the flower color, so the flower color can be roughly determined by looking at the bulb. It is distributed in the Mediterranean region, including Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor. Hyacinths were introduced to Europe via Italy in the 16th century, resulting in the development of Dutch hyacinths, primarily cultivated in the Netherlands, and Roman hyacinths, improved in France. While the latter are hardier and easier to grow, their flowers and clusters are smaller, leading to less cultivation. Dutch hyacinths became more widespread, particularly gaining popularity in the 18th century. Hyacinths were introduced to Japan during the Edo period, specifically the Ansei era (1854-1860), but widespread cultivation only began in the Taisho era (1912-1926). It is said that there were once as many as 2,000 horticultural varieties of hyacinths, but their diversity lies mainly in flower color; they do not exhibit the same level of variation in plant form or flower shape as tulips or narcissus. This is attributed to the fact that they originated from only one wild species, and no interspecific hybrids were created.

No. 0560 Hyacinthoides hispanica

This is a bulbous perennial herb. The leaves are linear-lanceolate to lanceolate. It flowers from April to May. A raceme of about 10 small, somewhat slender, tubular flowers with bell-shaped openings extend from the tip of an upright flower stalk. The fruit is a capsule. It is native to the western part of the Iberian Peninsula (excluding the extremely northwest), including Portugal and western Spain, but is cultivated in many countries, including Japan. It has naturalized in many European countries, North America, and Australia.

No.0560.a Scilla forbesii

Forbesii's Snow Lily is the author's provisional name. It is part of a group of plants known horticulturally as Chionodoxa. It is a perennial herb. The bulb produces two leaves up to 12 cm long and 2 cm wide, and one flower stalk up to 10.5 cm long. The flowers are borne in broad, pyramidal racemes, with up to 12 flowers per stalk. The lower flowers face outwards, and the upper flowers face upwards. Each flower is up to 3 cm in diameter, with individual petals 1.3 cm long. The base of each perianth segment is white, creating a white "eye." The outside of the perianth segments is dark blue to purplish-blue. It is distinguished from other species of the same genus by the flattened base of the stamens, which are densely clustered in the center of the flower. It is native to western and southern Turkey. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries, including Japan.

No. 0561 Muscari botryoides

This is a perennial herb, growing up to 20 (to 30) cm tall. The bulb is ovate, 1.5–2.5 × 1–2 cm, without lateral branches, and translucent to pale brown. There are 2–4 (to 5) leaves. The leaf blade has prominent ridges, is linear to umbel-shaped, 15–35 (to 40) cm × 3–8 (to 12) mm, and the apex is abruptly curled. It flowers from March to May. The pedicels are 20–35 (to 40) cm long, usually slightly exceeding the leaves. The racemes consist of 12–20 flowers. The flowers have sky-blue corolla tubes, are spherical to ovate, 2–4 × 2–3 mm, with white margins, and spreading pedicels 1–3 (to 5) mm long. The fruit is a capsule, 4–6 × 4–6 mm, and 3-lobed. It is native to Central and Southeastern Europe, growing in open forest areas and mountain meadows. It is cultivated for ornamental purposes in various countries, including Japan, and escapes cultivation in the United States (Flora of North America). Information on identifying Muscari species is scarce on the Japanese internet, but it is clearly described in "Flora of North America". Although both Muscari ruficollis and Muscari ruficollis have sky-blue flower tubes, they can be distinguished by the number of flowers in the raceme: Muscari ruficollis has 12-20 flowers, while Muscari ruficollis has 20-40.

No.0561.a Grape Muscari (Muscari armeniacum)

Perennial herb. Also known as Large Blue Limuscari. 15–22.5 cm tall. The bulb is less than 2.5 cm in diameter (10 cm in circumference), slightly elongated, with a brown (gray) skin. Leaves emerge in autumn and persist until flowering. Leaves are (3–)6–8 in number, linear, 30–40 cm long × 3–8 (–10) mm wide, uneven, the convex side is glossy green, the concave side is blunt, powdery white, and always longer than the flower stalk. One–3 flower stalks grow on the bulb, about 20 (–30) cm long. The raceme is borne on the flower stalk, conical, thick, 2–10 cm long, and densely bearing 20–40 flowers. It is called "grape" because it resembles an inverted bunch of grapes. Bracts are small and white. Flowers are slightly fragrant. Pedicels are slightly shorter than the flowers. The corolla is urn-shaped to cup-shaped (oblong to obovate), with a constricted mouth, 6-7 mm long, dark purplish-blue to light blue, and has white teeth. Sterile flowers are borne in clusters of 2-10 (18 or fewer) at the tip of the raceme, and these sterile flowers lack pedicels. The entire plant is light blue. The seeds are about 2 mm long and black. Flowering occurs from March to May (August to October in the Southern Hemisphere). Fruiting occurs from October to December in the Southern Hemisphere.

No.0561.b Eucomis pallidiflora subsp. pole–evansii

Poleevansi Hoshiomoto is the author's provisional name. It is a perennial herb. It is part of what is called Eucomis in horticulture. It is also called Eucomis pole-evansii, but recent papers often classify it as a subspecies (e.g., Rasethe et al., 2019). The academic history is unclear. It has very large rosette leaves and flowers in the summer. Thick flower stalks with purple spots reach a height of 1.3 to 1.5 m, from which green or greenish-white flowers bloom in a spiral. After flowering, purple to black fruits form along the flower heads. It is native to South Africa and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries.

No.0561.c Eucomis autumnalis

Otumnari sieboldii is the author's provisional name. It is a perennial herb, part of what is called Eucomis in horticulture. Like other Eucomis species, it has rosette leaves. The leaves are up to 55 cm long and 6-13 cm wide, with wavy margins. The sweet-smelling inflorescences that form at the end of summer are dense racemes, reaching an overall height of 30-45 cm. Individual flowers have green, yellowish-green, or white perianth segments, growing on pedicels 2-10 mm long. The stamen filaments are joined at the base, forming a slightly cup-shaped structure. At the top of the inflorescence are green bracts, up to 65 mm long. There is no purple coloration overall. It is native to Malawi and the Cape Province of South Africa and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries.

No.0561.d Bowiea volubilis

This is a perennial succulent plant with an onion-like bulb that can reach 20 cm in diameter. The surface is smooth and pale green. One or two vine-like stems grow from the top of the bulb. These vine-like stems are annuals. The stems branch repeatedly as they grow upwards, reaching a maximum length of 2-3 meters. Small, pale green, six-petaled flowers bloom from spring to summer, but they are not very conspicuous. The leaves are almost vestigial. It is native to South Africa, from Kenya to the Cape Province, and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No. 0563 Chlorophytum comosum (Spider Plant)

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The leaves are long and narrow, reaching 20-30 cm in length, with pointed tips. The roots are succulent and grow in clumps. Runners emerge from between the leaves, producing new plants (seedlings) with aerial roots at each node. The name "spider plant" comes from the appearance of these new plants hanging down in several tiers with their aerial roots. The flowers are white and small, blooming at several nodes on the runners in spring. It is native to Natal, South Africa, and is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. 'Vittatum' is a horticultural variety with variegated leaves.

No.0563.1 Chlorophytum comosum 'Variegatum' (Spider Plant)‘

A cultivated variety of spider plant with green leaves edged in white.

No. 0564 Agave americana

This evergreen perennial herb is native to Mexico and Texas, USA, and is cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide, including Japan, and has naturalized in some countries. It thrives in hot climates and drought-prone areas. Due to its long lifespan, it is sometimes called the "plant of the century," and in Japan, it is sometimes said to live for over 50 years, but this is likely false; according to information from English-speaking countries, it usually lives for 10 to 30 years (no scientific literature found). It spreads to about 1.8 to 3.0 m and has grayish-green leaves 0.9 to 1.5 m long, each with a spiny edge and a heavy spike at the tip that can pierce deeply. It is a unirtrix plant, and near the end of its life, it produces tall, branched stems covered with many yellow flowers, which can reach a height of up to 8 to 9 m. It is pollinated by bats at night, which come to feed on nectar and pollen, and by hummingbirds during the day (Knudsen & Tollsten, 1995). No literature describing specific species could be found. On the other hand, in Agave angustifolia, the Saussure bat (Leptonycteris curasoae) is almost exclusively pollinated by bats that come to feed on nectar and pollen (Molina-Freaner & Eguiarte, 2003). The pollination ecology of wild and cultivated species of the genus Agave has been largely unstudied, and a comprehensive review can be found in Trejo-Salazar et al. (2016). The plant dies after flowering, but adventitious buds emerge from the base, continuing to grow as the next generation. The reason why it is a unicycled plant with tall inflorescences, more flowers, nectar, and complex carbohydrates is thought to be an adaptation to bat pollination that allows for long-distance pollination (Eguiarte et al., 2021). The reason it rarely flowers is probably because the production of these substances takes a very long time. If the flower stalk is cut before the flowers bloom, a sweet liquid called agua miel (honey water) collects in the hollow center of the plant. In pre-Columbian Mexico, this was fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage called pulque or octori. Mezcal is a distilled spirit made from this liquid. Agave americana is a species of agave used to make mezcal. It is sometimes said that Agave americana is the raw material for tequila, a well-known type of mezcal, but this is also false. Tequila is produced in the town of Tequila and refers to the tequila agave, Agave tequilana, which is the main ingredient, so it is different from this species. Similarly, tequila agave is pollinated by bats, so its conservation needs to be considered in conjunction with bats (Trejo-Salazar et al., 2016). The leaves were also used to make a fiber called pita.

What's the difference between agave and yucca? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species! Is it a myth that they live for 100 years? Is it a myth that they're used to make tequila? – Ecological Notes Web

Agave, agave, Yucca, and yucca all belong to the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family), and are characterized by their large size, sometimes reaching the height of a child or adult, and their monocotyledonous leaves with parallel veins.

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No.0564.1 Agave americana 'Marginata'‘

This is a variety of Agave americana with yellow stripes along the edges of each leaf. Note that the relationship between the Japanese name and the scientific name is reversed.

No.0565.a Agave stricta

This is an evergreen perennial herb. It is an evergreen succulent that grows to a height of 50 cm, with a rosette diameter of 50-60 cm, and narrow, spiny, elongated leaves that radiate outwards. In summer, it produces upright racemes up to 2 m long, bearing reddish-purple flowers. The leaves may take on a reddish tint in summer. It is native to Puebla and Oaxaca in southern Mexico. In Japan, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant. It may be pollinated by bats or hummingbirds, but no research literature confirming this could be found.

No. 0566 Yucca gloriosa var. gloriosa

This evergreen shrub is also known as Yucca (a general term for the genus). It grows to a height of 50-250 cm and branches. The leaves are 60-75 cm long and about 5 cm wide, firm and thick, dark green to later grayish-green, and pointed at the tip. The flowers are erect, forming a conical inflorescence at a height of 1-2 m, bearing numerous white flowers. The individual flowers are large and bell-shaped, reaching nearly 10 cm in diameter. It blooms in June, sometimes blooming again in the fall. The fruit is a slender, leathery fruit. Native to the southern United States, it grows on exposed sand dunes and breakwater islands along the coast. It is the most commonly cultivated species in Japan. The genus Yucca, including this species, is known to have an obligate pollination symbiotic relationship with the moths Tegeticula and Parategeticula (Kawakita, 2012; Ishii, 2020). Female yucca moths visit Yucca plants with the purpose of laying eggs on the pistils. These moths use their specialized antennae to collect pollen from other Yucca plants, thus pollinating the Yucca plants. The eggs laid by the yucca moths hatch when the pistils mature and develop into seeds, and the larvae complete their development by eating the seeds. Yucca plants regulate the behavior of yucca moths by exhibiting a physiological phenomenon that stops fruit maturation if a certain number of eggs are laid on the pistils, preventing excessive seed consumption. In Japan, where yucca moths are absent, fruit rarely develops. Yucca yuccasella is pollinated by Tegeticula yuccasella, and very rarely, introduced European honeybees also visit (Heyduk et al., 2021). The thin fruits are dispersed by wind (Kawakita, 2012). The symbiotic relationship between Yucca and yucca moths is only found in the continental United States and Mexico.

No. 0567 Yucca gloriosa var. recurvifolia

Yucca gloriosa is a variety of Yucca gloriosa that is taller and has slightly softer leaves, causing the lower leaves to bend in the middle. It is native to the southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia along the coast south to Florida in the south and Texas in the west.

No. 0568 Itran (Yucca filamentosa)

This is an evergreen shrub. In 'Ylist', it's listed as Yucca flaccida. There's a belief that Yucca flaccida is included within Yucca filamentosa (NCBI, Flora of North America). Yucca filamentosa is older in description, so the reason for 'Ylist' listing it as Yucca flaccida is unclear. It typically lacks a trunk and has thread-like, bluish-green, string-like leaves up to 75cm long with multiple suction cups. It's easily distinguished from other Yucca species by the white, thread-like filaments along the leaf margins. The flower stalks can reach 3m in height, bearing drooping cream-colored flowers in early summer. It's native to southeastern Virginia and Florida, and as far west as southern and southeastern Texas. It's most commonly found in sandy soils, especially as a coastal shrub or in sand dunes. In Japan, it's cultivated as an ornamental plant. Yucca filamentosa is pollinated by the yucca moth Tegeticula cassandra and, in the northern population, by the distantly related T. yuccasella (Svensson et al., 2005), while Yucca flaccida is pollinated by Tegeticula intermedia (Pellmyr, 1999), indicating an obligate pollination symbiotic relationship.

No.0568.a Yucca aloifolia

This evergreen shrub has an upright trunk, 7.6–12.7 cm in diameter, reaching a height of 1.5–6.1 m before the top becomes heavy and falls over. Once fallen, the tip turns upward and continues to grow. Each trunk is armed with a band of sharply pointed leaves with fine serrations, each about 0.61 m long. Young leaves near the growing tip are upright. Older leaves bend downward, and older leaves wither and turn brown, hanging from the lower trunk. Eventually, a spike of white-purple flowers, 0.61 m long, develops at the tip of the trunk, with each flower about 12.7 cm in diameter. After flowering, the trunk stops growing, but one or more lateral buds quickly form, with the top becoming a new terminal bud. New buds or branches are produced near the base of the trunk. Native to the Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions of the United States, from southern Virginia in the southeastern United States south to Florida, the Texas Gulf Coast in the west, Mexico along the Yucatan Coast to Bermuda, and parts of the Caribbean, it inhabits dry sandy beaches and shrub coastal areas, forming bushes. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries, including Japan. There is a hypothesis that Mexican timoran (Tetechia elephantipes ), native to Mexico, is a variety introduced and selected by early European settlers. In the southern United States, it is pollinated by the yucca moths Tetechia yuccasella and T. cassandra, and they have an obligate pollination symbiotic relationship (Rentsch & Leebens-Mack, 2014).

No.0568.b Variegated Yucca aloifolia 'Marginata'‘

A variety of *Senjuran* with yellow variegation on its leaves.

No.0571.a Hosta 'Halcyon'‘

This is a variety of hosta with grayish-blue-green leaves. The original species is unknown according to the author's research; it is also considered a hybrid.

No. 0574 Hosta sieboldii var. sieboldii f. spathulata

This is a perennial herb, reaching a height of 40-50 cm. The leaf blades vary considerably in shape and size, ranging from narrowly ovate to elliptic or ovate-elliptic, with an acute or acute apex, gradually narrowing at the base to form a wing that flows into the petiole, and having 3-6 veins on each side. The bracts are green, narrowly ovate, and acutely apex. The flowers are pale purple, 4-5 cm long. Flowering occurs from July to August. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Ussuri. It grows in grasslands and sparse forests. There is also a form called Hosta var. intermedia with particularly narrow leaf blades, but there appear to be no definitive taxonomic characteristics between the two.

No. 0578 Cordyline fruticosa

This evergreen shrub grows upright, reaching a height of approximately 100-450 cm and a width of approximately 100-250 cm. Its leaves come in various colors, including green, purple, red, pink, and black. New leaves are bright red or yellow, becoming darker as they age. The leaf blades are oval-shaped (approximately 30-75 cm long and 5-10 cm wide), and the leaves are arranged alternately. Flowering occurs from November to March of the following year, or year-round in warmer climates. It produces long inflorescences bearing small, fragrant yellow to red flowers. After flowering, small, spherical fruits develop, which ripen to a red color. It is distributed from Bangladesh to mainland Southeast Asia, southern China, Taiwan, the islands of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern Australia. It was carried throughout Oceania by the Austronesian people, who speak the Austronesian language family and spread from Taiwan to the islands of Southeast Asia, the Pacific islands, and Madagascar, reaching as far as Hawaii, New Zealand (including the Kermadec Islands), and Easter Island. It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant in other countries, including Japan. In East Polynesia, a variety with large green leaves is cultivated for use as an edible rhizome, and it has been artificially selected to be sterile and propagate only by cuttings. It is deeply associated with animistic religion among Austronesians, who believe it can hold the soul and therefore help heal the loss of the soul. The most familiar use to Japanese people is in the skirts (rai'i skirts) worn by hula dancers in Hawaii. The leaves are also used in cooking, as well as for canoe ropes and clothing.

No.0578.a Cordyline australis

This evergreen tree can reach a maximum height of 20 meters. Its trunk is thick, with a diameter of 1.5 to 2 meters. Before flowering, it has thin, unbranched stems, but after the first flowering, it forms a crown consisting of many branched branches with clusters of leaves at their tips. Each branch may further branch after the formation of the inflorescence. The bark is light gray to dark gray, corky, with cracks on the surface but does not peel naturally, and feels spongy to the touch. The leaves are long, narrow, and erect, light green to dark green. They are 40 to 100 cm long, with a base width of 3 to 7 cm. They have numerous parallel veins. They grow in clusters at the tips of branches, and the tips of the leaves, and in older leaves, the bases, may droop. The leaves are thick, with an indistinct midrib, and fine veins run somewhat uniformly and parallel. There is little difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves. From spring to early summer, it bears sweet-smelling flowers in large racemes 60 to 100 cm long. The flowers and inflorescences are sessile or nearly sessile, with the flowers densely arranged along the inflorescence. Each flower is 5-6 mm in diameter, with six perianth segments that separate near the base and curve backward. The stamens are roughly the same length as the perianth segments. The pistil is short, and the stigma is three-lobed. The fruit is a white berry, 5-7 mm in diameter. It is endemic to New Zealand, a pioneer plant, and can be found in a wide variety of locations, from forests and rocky coastlines to low-lying wetlands, lakesides and riverbanks, and on isolated rocks. In Japan, Europe, and North America, it is cultivated for ornamental purposes. The sweet fragrance of the flowers attracts many insects, but the nectar contains aromatic compounds, mainly esters and terpenes, which particularly attract moths. The fruit takes about two months to ripen and is dispersed by birds by the end of summer. The inflorescence structure is sturdy enough for heavy birds, such as the New Zealand pigeon, which was once the main seed disperser, to cling to it. Each fruit contains 3 to 6 glossy black seeds, each covered in a charcoal-like substance (phytomelan) that protects the seeds in the digestive tract of birds. The Maori people have used the stems for food and the leaves for fiber.

No.0579 Asparagus cochinchinensis var. lucidus

Asparagus jasmine is a dioecious perennial herb. Also known as Tenmondou, it is a climbing perennial herb. The stems grow to about 2m in length. In May, it bears small, pale yellowish-green flowers, about 6mm in diameter, in clusters of 1 to 4. The flower stalks are 2-5mm long. The fruit ripens to white. It is distributed from Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands to Korea, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. It grows in coastal forest edges and rocky areas.

What are the differences between Asparagus, Asparagus japonica, and Asparagus serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species – Ecological Notes Web

Asparagus, rhizome, and kusasukazura are all perennial herbs belonging to the genus Asparagus in the family Asparagaceae, and their most distinctive feature is the clusters of very thin, spine-like "leaf-like" structures. In reality, these are modified "branches" (called leaf-like branches).

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No. 0582 Asparagus officinalis

This is a dioecious perennial herb, also known as asparagus. Its fruits ripen to a red color. The plant grows to about 1.5m tall, and the long, slender, leaf-like structures at the end of the stem are modified stems that perform photosynthesis and are therefore called pseudoleaves (or cladoid branches). Morphologically, the true leaves are the triangular parts clinging to the stem, commonly called "hakama" (skirts). It produces small, yellowish-white flowers from May to July. Propagation is by seed. It resembles Asparagus, but can be distinguished by its clusters of 5-8 straight, slender cladoid branches and its flower stalks, which are about 1cm long. It is native to the west coast of Europe (from northern Spain to northwestern Germany, Northern Ireland, and the United Kingdom). It is cultivated in various countries, including Japan, as a vegetable and sometimes as an ornamental plant. In Japan, it sometimes escapes cultivation and becomes naturalized, mainly in alluvial plains. The young shoots that emerge from the third year after planting are generally used for food. Asparagus has been used as a vegetable due to its unique flavor, and also as a medicine due to its diuretic and aphrodisiac properties. It is a vegetable that contains notable nutrients such as aspartic acid (named after asparagus, one of the umami components, and acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system in humans), as well as vitamins, folic acid, and rutin. Historically, it was already depicted as an offering in Egyptian friezes (part of architectural decoration) from 3000 BC. In ancient times, it was also known in Syria and the Iberian Peninsula. The Greeks and Romans ate fresh asparagus when it was in season and dried it for use in winter. Today, it is eaten all over the world after being boiled, steamed, or stir-fried. It was introduced to Japan by Dutch ships during the Edo period (after 1781) and cultivated for ornamental purposes, but it was not until the Meiji era (1871) that it was introduced for food by the Hokkaido Development Commission. Varieties such as white asparagus are also known. When asparagus is digested, volatile sulfur-containing compounds are released from aspartic acid, causing an odor in human urine, although the degree of odor varies from person to person. It has been found that this is not due to individual differences in digestion, but rather to individual differences in olfactory genes caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). However, the adaptive significance of this, as well as the adaptive significance of the high aspartic acid content for the Dutch asparagus, is not yet understood.

No.0584 Dracaena draco

This evergreen tree is long-lived, reaching a maximum height of over 15 meters and a trunk circumference of over 5 meters. Its bark starts smooth and becomes rougher as it ages. The leaves are flat, leathery, bluish-green, and sword-shaped, growing in clusters at the tips of the branches. In June, large conical inflorescences emerge from the branch tips, bearing small, white-green, tubular flowers with a lily-like fragrance, and producing round, orange fruits. When young, it has a single stem, but at around 10-15 years old, stem growth stops, a terminal bud appears, and the plant begins to branch. Each branch grows for about 10-15 years before re-branching, resulting in a mature dragon's blood tree with an umbrella-like shape. Growth is slow, taking about 10 years to reach a height of 1.2 meters. The name "dragon's blood tree" comes from the fact that a reddish resin is secreted when the bark or leaves are cut. Native to the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Madeira, and western Morocco in Africa, it is believed to have been introduced to the Azores. Its unusual tree shape has led to its cultivation as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No.0584.a Dracaena concinna

This is an evergreen shrub. It can grow to a height of 2-4.5m, but indoors it will be about 0.5-2m. Narrow, elongated leaves, 30-50cm long, grow densely at the top of the stems. The leaves are green with a red margin. Native to Madagascar and the Mauritius Islands, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries, including Japan.

No.0584.b Dracaena fragrans

This evergreen shrub to tree grows to over 6 meters tall in its natural habitat, sometimes reaching 15 meters. It does not have a succulent rhizome. Young plants have a single, unbranched trunk, but if the mature tip flowers or is damaged, that part will branch out into two or more new trunks. The branches are usually slender, erect, and form a narrow canopy. The leaves are densely clustered at the ends of the trunk and branches, glossy green, and have wavy edges. They are lanceolate, 20-150 cm long and 2-12 cm wide, and the larger leaves droop under their own weight. As it grows, the lower leaves fall off, leaving the trunk exposed. From the leaf axils emerge panicles 15-160 cm long, bearing numerous small, six-petaled flowers clustered in a rounded head. The flowers are pinkish in bud, and when they open at night, they turn white to cream-colored, with thin red or purple lines in the center of each perianth segment. The flowers are fragrant. The flower has no bracts at its base. The ovary is divided into three chambers, each containing one ovule. The fruit is a berry that ripens to an orange-red color, 1-2 cm in diameter. Native to tropical Africa, it is distributed from southern Sudan to Mozambique, as far west as Côte d'Ivoire, and as far southwest as Angola. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan. It is sometimes referred to as Koufuku-no-ki, but it is a completely different species and is actually said to refer to Sennenboku.

No.0584.c Dracaena surculosa 'Florida Beauty' (Star-flowered pine tree)‘

This is an evergreen shrub. Its leaves are ovate with pointed tips, thin and soft, and have entire margins. It produces numerous small, slender, tubular white flowers in spike-like inflorescences. A distinctive feature of the 'Florida Beauty' variety is its green leaves with many yellow spots. These yellow spots turn white as the leaves age. The corolla is five-lobed at the tip. Native to tropical West and Central West Africa, from Guinea to the Republic of Congo, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No.0584.d Beaucarnea recurvata (Ponytail Orchid)

This evergreen tree grows up to 4.72m tall, with a single, palm-like stem bearing thin, linear, green, flat or slightly ridged leaves. The leaves form clusters, and after more than 10 years, it occasionally produces small white flower clusters. The trunk, which is greatly swollen only at the base, branches slightly at the top. It has a large tuber to store water. The nearly spherical tuber in its youth later grows to 4-6m in length and reaches a diameter of over 50cm at the base. The bark is smooth. Native to eastern Mexico, it used to grow wild in many states, but is now limited to Veracruz. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan. Human activity is reducing its population.

No.0586.1 Dracaena trifasciata 'Laurentii'‘

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The previously used name Sansevieria trifasciata was later identified by Mabberley (2017) as a synonym of Dracaena trifasciata. The NCBI Taxonomy still lists it as Sansevieria trifasciata. The stems are underground and creep horizontally, with only the leaves emerging above ground. Leaves grow from the creeping stems at small intervals, and these then grow long and upright above ground, resulting in a plant with rows of flat, board-like leaves. The leaves have horizontal stripes of varying shades of green, which is the origin of its name, "tiger's tail orchid." Flower stalks emerge from between the leaves, bearing small, inconspicuous flowers. Nectaries are located at the base of the slender stems of the flowers and buds, from which small, transparent nectar droplets hang. It is a CAM plant and uses a special type of photosynthesis called CAM photosynthesis to suppress daytime photosynthesis, thereby preventing water evaporation and allowing it to withstand drought. On cool nights, it opens its stomata to concentrate carbon dioxide. Native to Africa (Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo), it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan. It is believed to have been introduced to Japan sometime between the mid-Meiji and late Meiji periods, and for a long time, only this species of the genus was cultivated. Fukurin Chitosera 'Fukurin Chitosera' is a variety of Atsuba Chitosera with yellow margins on its leaves, and it was introduced to Japan in the early Showa period and has become widely cultivated.

No.0587 Aspidistra elatior

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate, dark green, 20-50 cm long, and have long petioles. The flower stalks are 2-7 cm tall, and the flowers bloom from February to May, being brownish-purple. They are succulent and bloom close to the ground, so they are hidden by the leaves and are not easily seen unless you observe carefully. It is native to the Uji Islands, Kuroshima, and Suwanosejima in southern Kyushu, Japan, and grows in scattered hilly areas, forming colonies under house groves and bamboo forests. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant all over the world and escapes cultivation. There were once hypotheses that it was pollinated by snails and slugs, or by amphipods, but it is now known that these species rarely visit, and that it is pollinated by fungus gnats of the genera Cordyla and Bradysia (Suetsugu & Sueyoshi, 2018). The flowers mimic mushrooms. In Japan, it has been used as a garnish when plating Japanese cuisine. The green plastic ornaments called "baran" that come with sushi and other foods are an imitation of the old name for haran, or a shortened form of "artificial baran," and are made to resemble haran.

No.0588 Rohdea japonica

Evergreen perennial herb (Kitamura et al., 1957). The rhizome is thick and grows obliquely or horizontally, with numerous sturdy roots. The leaves are basal leaves arranged in clusters. They are lanceolate, gradually tapering to a point at the tip and narrowing towards the base. They are thick in texture, glabrous on both sides, glossy, and 30-50 cm long. The flower stalk is 8-18 cm long, glabrous, and leafless. The flowers are densely borne in oblong spike-like inflorescences. The bracts are broadly ovate, membranous, obtuse, and 2-3 mm long. The flowers are sessile and lateral, hemispherical in shape, with perianth segments fused together above the middle to form a tube, and the lobes curve inward and rounded at the apex. There are 6 stamens enclosed in the perianth, with filaments fused to the flower tube and ovate anthers. The ovary is spherical, 3-chambered, with 2 ovules in each chamber. The style is very short, and the stigma is shallowly 3-lobed. The berries are spherical, 1 cm in diameter, red, rarely yellow, and contain one seed. Flowering occurs from May to July. It grows in forests in warm regions of Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and China. It is often found in limestone areas. It also grows in forests around human settlements and escapes cultivation. It is cultivated for ornamental purposes, and many horticultural varieties are known. Classically, it was believed to be malacophilic, with slugs and snails pollinating the flowers, but additional experiments have shown that flowers pollinated by slugs do not bear fruit (Suetsugu, 2019), raising doubts about their contribution to pollination. The possibility of pollination by ants has also been suggested.

No. 0589 Reineckea carnea

This is an evergreen perennial herb (Kitamura et al., 1957). The berry has a well-developed rhizome that creeps long, producing numerous roots at various points, from which leaves and flower stalks emerge. The leaves are arranged in clusters, linear with an acute apex, sessile, 8-30 cm long, and glabrous on both sides. The flowering period is from August to November (to December). The pale reddish-purple flower stalks are leafless, 5-13 cm tall, erect, and glabrous. The spike-like inflorescence is 4.5-7 cm long, with ovate bracts 5-7 mm long. The perianth is about 1 cm long, glabrous, fused to form a tube halfway through, deeply 6-lobed, with narrowly oblong lobes, obtuse apex, and recurved. There are 6 stamens, slightly shorter than the perianth, fused to the flower tube, glabrous at the free part, and anthers 2 mm long. The style is longer than the perianth and glabrous, with a capitate stigma shallowly 3-lobed. The berries are spherical, 6-9 mm in diameter, and ripen to red. The seeds are oval, 4 mm long. It is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and China, growing in clusters in evergreen broad-leaved forests and cedar plantations in hilly areas. It grows in mountainous forests from west of the Kanto region to Kyushu.

No.0590 Liriope muscari

This is an evergreen perennial herb, growing to a height of 20-60 cm. The leaves have 11-15 veins. The flowers bloom in July, August, and September and are purple. The seeds are spherical, 6-8 mm in diameter, and ripen to black. It is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, the Ryukyu Islands, Korea, China, and Taiwan, and is somewhat common throughout the oak and evergreen broad-leaved forest zones, growing in forests of evergreen broad-leaved trees and cedar plantations. The white-flowered variety is called Liriope muscari f. albiflora.

What are the differences between Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the family Asparagaceae, growing in forests. They are cultivated as ornamental plants and are often confused with each other due to their similar-looking flowers and leaves. Distinguishing between them is difficult, but recording the leaf width, number of flowers, and flower stalk length can help…

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No.0590.1 Liriope muscari f. variegata

A variety of liriope with slender green leaves and thin yellow or white stripes.

No.0591 Liriope spicata

What are the differences between Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the family Asparagaceae, growing in forests. They are cultivated as ornamental plants and are often confused with each other due to their similar-looking flowers and leaves. Distinguishing between them is difficult, but recording the leaf width, number of flowers, and flower stalk length can help…

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No. 0593 Ophiopogon japonicus var. japonicus

An evergreen perennial herb. Also known as Ophiopogon japonicus. It grows to a height of 7-12 cm. The leaves are 2-4 mm wide with rough edges. Compared to Ophiopogon japonicus, the leaves are shorter but wider, and it often grows in clusters in sunny locations. The flowers bloom in June and July and are pale purple. The seeds ripen to a bluish-green color. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Korea, China, and Taiwan, and is somewhat common in the oak and chestnut zones, mainly growing under evergreen broad-leaved forests and in grasslands. The white-flowered variety is called Ophiopogon japonicus f. leucanthus. There is also a type that grows in clumps and does not produce stolons, called Ophiopogon japonicus var. caespitosus, which is often found as a cultivated variety.

What are the differences between Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid all belong to the Ophiopogon genus of the Asparagaceae family (formerly Asparagaceae), and are evergreen perennial herbs often seen growing creeping along the ground in forests. Their most distinctive feature is the dark blue seeds they produce, which are easily mistaken for fruits…

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No.0593.1 Ophiopogon japonicus var. japonicus f. nanus

This variety of Ophiopogon japonicus grows to a small, dense plant height of 5-8 cm. It has high resistance to flooding and submersion, and can survive even when its roots are submerged in water or submerged in water, making it suitable for cultivation as a ground cover in gardens.

No.0593.2 White Banana Ophiopogon japonicus var. umbrosus f. leucanthus

An evergreen perennial herb. The flower stalks are 10-30 cm tall. The leaves are 1.5-2.5 mm wide. The flowers bloom in June and July and are pale purple. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, southern Korea, and China, and is common in the oak and chestnut zone, growing on the forest floor and forest edges. White-flowered variety Ophiopogon japonicus f. leucanthus.

No.0594.a Ophiopogon jaburan

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The rhizome is vertical and branched. It lacks a stolon. A slender, spindle-shaped thickening may be seen in the middle of the root. The leaves are evergreen and thick, 40–130 cm long and (7–)10–18 mm wide, with an acute to acute apex, sometimes with a narrow, membranous wing on the lower part of the margin, and finely serrated on the upper part of the margin. The flower stalk is arching, 25–75 cm long and 4–8 mm wide, with a flattened, two-angled, narrow wing. The inflorescence is 7–13 cm long, bearing 3–8 flowers at each node. The bracts are narrowly lanceolate to lanceolate, the lowest being 1.5–9 cm long, pale green, with a membranous margin and an apicate apex. The flowers open downwards. The pedicel (including the part enclosed in the perianth sheath) is 10–22 mm long, usually more than twice as long as the perianth (excluding the sheath). The perianth (excluding the sheath-like part) is usually shorter than the perianth sheath, white to pale purple, with ovate-oblong lobes 5-7 mm long and slightly recurved. The anthers are lanceolate, 4-5 mm long. The seeds are dark blue. Mature seeds are elliptical, 8-14 mm long and 6-10 mm wide. The flowering period is from July to September. It is distributed in Honshu (west of Tokai), Shikoku, Kyushu, and Korea (Jeju Island), growing in the undergrowth of forests near the sea. It escapes cultivation mainly near the coast.

No.0597 Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum

This is a perennial herb, growing to a height of 30-60 cm. The leaves are oblong, with a powdery white-green underside. The flowers bloom in April and May, and are white with pale green perianth segments. The filaments have minute projections. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Korea, and China. It is commonly found on hills and foothills, growing in grasslands and bright woodlands.

What are the differences between Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum humile, and Disporum sessile? What insects visit the downward-facing flowers? Polygonatum odoratum was producing flowers with only stamens due to nutrient deficiency!?

Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum humile, and Disporum sessile are all species that bloom in spring and are commonly found both in gardens and as wildflowers, but they can be a little difficult to distinguish because they are often sold mixed together. Therefore, I have summarized the botanical distinguishing features of the Polygonatum genus. Mainly, the way the flowers grow…

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No. 0599 Polygonatum falcatum

This is a perennial herb, growing to a height of 30-60 cm. The rhizome is thick, with short internodes, resembling a string of beads. It has 13-17 leaves, broadly lanceolate in shape, with three prominent main veins, and projection-like hairs on the veins of the underside. Often, a white line runs down the center of the upper surface of the leaf, especially noticeable on young leaves. In May and June, pale yellowish-green, tubular flowers hang down in clusters of 3-4 from the leaf axils. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu; as well as Korea and Northeast China. It grows in forests and grasslands.

No. 0601 Polygonatum lasianthum

This is a perennial herb, reaching a height of 30-60 cm. It has approximately eight leaves, broadly oblong with wavy margins and three prominent main veins. In May and June, the pedicels emerge from the leaf axils, spreading along the underside of the leaves, bearing 1-3 drooping white tubular flowers. In many individuals, the tips of the perianth segments do not open flat. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Korea. It mainly grows in bright deciduous forests. In Hokkaido, there is a record of the Hokkaido bumblebee, Bombus diversus tersatus, visiting the flowers (Akabane et al., 2016).

No.0603.1 German Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis)

This perennial herb has a rhizome and two oblong leaves, about 15 cm long and 5 cm wide. The long petioles clasp together, and the lower part is enclosed in membranous, apical leaves. In late spring, a flower stalk about 30 cm long grows from the axil of these apical leaves, usually reaching the same height as the leaves. About 10 small, fragrant, bell-shaped white flowers, about 7 mm long, hang downwards in a raceme. The corolla is 6-lobed with recurved lobes, and there are 6 stamens. The fruit is a red berry. The entire plant contains glycosides such as convallamarin, convallalin, and convallatoxin, which are poisonous but have cardiotonic and laxative effects. This is the species sold in garden centers, and it has larger flowers, a stronger fragrance, glossy leaves, and is suitable for early cultivation compared to the Japanese lily of the valley. In Europe, it is an indispensable flower for May Day celebrations. It is native to Europe, has naturalized in eastern North America, and is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. As horticultural varieties, double-flowered, pink-flowered, red-flowered, and variegated-leaved varieties are known.

References

Akabane, S., Hino, T., & Yoshida, T. 2016. Response of bumblebee communities to increased density of Ezo deer. Journal of Forest Wildlife Research 41: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.18987/jjwrs.41.0_1

Eguiarte, LE, Jiménez Barrón, OA, Aguirre-Planter, E., Scheinvar, E., Gamez, N., Gasca-Pineda, J., … & Souza, V. 2021. Evolutionary ecology of Agave: distribution patterns, phylogeny, and coevolution (an homage to Howard S. Gentry). American Journal of Botany 108(2): 216-235. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.1609

Heyduk, K., McAssey, EV, Grimwood, J., Shu, S., Schmutz, J., McKain, MR, & Leebens-Mack, J. 2021. Hybridization history and repetitive element content in the genome of a homoploid hybrid, Yucca gloriosa (Asparagaceae). Frontiers in Plant Science 11: 573767. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.573767

Ishii, Hiroshi. 2020. The Resilient and Wonderful Relationship Between Flowers and Insects: Ecology Related to Pollination. Bere Publishing, Tokyo. 290pp. ISBN: 9784860646103

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kawakita, Atsushi. 2012. How did obligate pollination symbiosis cross the ocean? – Island biogeography of symbiotic systems of the Phyllanthaceae family and the genus Phyllanthus. Journal of the Ecological Society of Japan 62(3): 321-327. https://doi.org/10.18960/seitai.62.3_321

Kitamura, Shiro, Murata, Gen, and Hori, Masaru. 1957. Illustrated Flora of Japan in Color: Herbaceous Plants, Vol. 1, Revised Edition. Hoikusha, Osaka. 297pp. ISBN: 9784586300150

Knudsen, JT, & Tollsten, L. 1995. Floral scent in bat-pollinated plants: a case of convergent evolution. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 119(1): 45-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1995.tb00728.x

Pellmyr, O. 1999. Systematic revision of the yucca moths in the Tegeticula yuccasella complex (Lepidoptera: Prodoxidae) north of Mexico. Systematic Entomology 24(3): 243-271. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.1999.00079.x

Rasethe, MT, Semenya, SS, & Maroyi, A. 2019. Medicinal plants traded in informal herbal medicine markets of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2019: 2609532. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2609532

Rentsch, JD, & Leebens-Mack, J. 2014. Yucca aloifolia (Asparagaceae) opts out of an obligate pollination mutualism. American Journal of Botany 101(12): 2062-2067. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1400351

Suetsugu, K., & Sueyoshi, M. 2018. Subterranean flowers of Aspidistra elatior are mainly pollinated by not terrestrial amphipods but fungus gnats. Ecology 99(1): 244-246. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2021

Suetsugu, K. 2019. Slug pollination in Rohdea japonica ? Testing a one-hundred-year-old hypothesis. Journal of Molluscan Studies 85(2): 284-285. https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyz011

Svensson, GP, Hickman Jr, MO, Bartram, S., Boland, W., Pellmyr, O., & Raguso, RA 2005. Chemistry and geographic variation of floral scent in Yucca filamentosa (Agavaceae). American Journal of Botany 92(10): 1624-1631. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.92.10.1624

Trejo-Salazar, RE, Eguiarte, LE, Suro-Piñera, D., & Medellin, RA 2016. Save our bats, save our tequila: industry and science forces join to help bats and agaves. Natural Areas Journal 36(4): 523-530. https://doi.org/10.3375/043.036.0417

Tsukamoto, Yotaro. 1994. Encyclopedia of Horticultural Plants, Compact Edition. Shogakukan, Tokyo. 3710pp. ISBN: 9784093051118

Mabberley, DJ 2017. Mabberley's plant-book: a portable dictionary of plants, their classification and uses. Cambridge University Press. 1120pp. ISBN: 9781107115026,
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316335581

Molina-Freaner, F., & Eguiarte, LE 2003. The pollination biology of two paniculate agaves (Agavaceae) from northwestern Mexico: contrasting roles of bats as pollinators. American Journal of Botany 90(7): 1016-1024. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.90.7.1016

The Amaryllidaceae family consists of perennial herbs that usually have bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne singly in umbels at the terminal or on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. There are three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some have a corona. There are usually six stamens, and the ovary is three-chambered with axillary placenta. The fruit is a capsule, although berries are rare. The Amaryllidaceae family consists of the Agapanthoideae subfamily (Agapanthus only, not native to Japan, only cultivated varieties), the Allioideae subfamily (Allium, Ipheion, Allium, etc.), and the Amaryllidoideae subfamily (Crisis japonica, Lycoris, Narcissus, Zephyranthes, etc.). In the APG system, the Amaryllidaceae family became part of the Asparagales order, the entire Allioideae subfamily moved from the Liliaceae family, and the genus Ipheion, which was previously part of the Scilloideae subfamily, also moved. The former Allioideae subfamily and the genus Ipheion share similarities with the Amaryllidaceae family, such as having umbel inflorescences (sometimes single flowers) and membranous involucral bracts at the base of the inflorescence.

This article provides a comprehensive, illustrated guide to plants belonging to the Amaryllidaceae family.

The basic information is based on Tsukamoto (1994) and the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018). Photographs are replaced as better ones become available. While the identifications are made by the author, please note that they may be changed without notice if misidentifications are found.

No. 0529 Allium macrostemon

This is a perennial herb. The bulb is spherical and covered with a white, membranous outer layer. The leaves are linear, hollow, and crescent-shaped in cross-section. The flower stalk is 40-80 cm tall, and the flowers bloom in May and June, being pale reddish-purple. Often, some or all of the flowers on the inflorescence develop into bulbils. The plant reproduces by scattering these bulbils, which fall off and become new individuals. The reason why many plants with only bulbils and no flowers are found around rice paddies and fields is thought to be because frequent weed cutting by humans makes it more efficient for the plant to reproduce than to flower and produce seeds. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu; Korea, and China. It is common throughout the prefecture, growing on the ridges and banks of fields and rice paddies. The bulbs and leaves are eaten as a wild plant, and because it is common near farmland, there is a theory that it was introduced from China a long time ago.

No. 0530 Chives (Allium tuberosum)

This is a perennial herb. The entire plant has a strong odor. From the lower end of the narrowly ovate to lanceolate bulb, distinct rhizomes emerge and connect to form a bundle. The base and bulb are covered with palm-like fibers. The leaves are flattened, 3-6 mm wide, and end at a blunt tip. The flower stalk is 30-50 cm tall, and the flowers bloom from August to October, with white flowers in an umbel inflorescence. The perianth segments are oblong-lanceolate with pointed tips, about 5 mm long, and spreading. It is said to be distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Pakistan, India, and China, but it has been cultivated in fields as a vegetable since ancient times, and it is not well known whether it is truly wild in Japan or whether it spread after being cultivated. It is likely that cultivated plants have escaped cultivation and spread widely on embankments, ridges, and vacant lots. It is used in Japanese cuisine as an ingredient in soups, as a condiment, in blanched dishes, and in stir-fries, as well as in Chinese and Korean cuisine. Representative dishes include liver and chive stir-fry, chive omelet, chive dumplings, and gyoza.

No. 0532 Ezo leek (Allium schoenoprasum var. schoenoprasum)

This is a perennial herb. It is treated as a variety of the basic species, * A. schoenoprasum* var. *schoenoprasum *. It is distinguished from *Chives* by the short, pointed shape of the tips of its perianth segments, the fact that its flower stalks sometimes emerge separately from the leaf clusters, and that its flower color ranges from white to pale reddish-purple.

No. 0534 Wild Shallot (Allium thunbergii)

This is a perennial herb. The bulb is narrowly ovate with a hard outer skin that sometimes remains fibrous. The leaves are broadly linear and hollow, with a blunt triangular cross-section. The flower stalk is 30-60 cm tall, and the flowers bloom from September to November. The perianth segments are reddish-purple, oval-shaped, and about 5 mm long. The anthers are reddish-brown. The teeth at the base of the filaments are not clearly defined. The leaves wither in winter. It is distributed in Honshu (south of Akita Prefecture), Shikoku, Kyushu, the Korean Peninsula, China, and Taiwan. It grows in mountain grasslands, meadows, and embankments. The white-flowered variety is called Allium schonoskii f. albiflorum.

No. 0535 Rakkyo (Japanese shallot) Allium chinense

A perennial herb. The outer skin of the bulb is thin and membranous. The flower stalk is 30-50 cm tall, and the flowers bloom from September to November. The pedicels are long, 20-30 mm in length. The filaments have large teeth at their base. The leaves wither in summer and remain green from autumn to winter. Native to China, it is cultivated in East Asia. Cultivated plants often escape into fields and urban areas. In Japan, it is eaten as pickled shallots (rakkyo).

No. 0536 Garlic (Allium sativum)

Garlic is a perennial plant. It is called garlic in English. It is believed to be native to Central Asia, but only cultivated varieties are known. The bulb consists of 4 to 10 scales, but in cultivated varieties that readily divide within the scales (forming secondary scales), the number of scales, including secondary scales, can be more than a dozen (more than 30 in some cases). The leaves are flat and there are 4 to 6 of them. The flower stalk grows to a height of 0.5 to 1 m and bears numerous flowers in an umbel inflorescence. However, the florets are generally sterile except for some varieties from Russia, and bulbils are mixed in with the involucre. The bulb is used as an edible vegetable. It seems to have spread to the West, India, and tropical Asia in ancient times, and was already being used in ancient Egypt (around 3200 BC). It was introduced to China during the Han dynasty, and to Japan via China during the time of the Kojiki, Nihon Shoki, and Manyoshu, but the earliest reliable description can be found in the Kusabetsu Wamyō (918 AD). Garlic is synonymous with aromatic vegetables because it eliminates the unpleasant odor of meat and adds an appetizing flavor to dishes. It is used in a variety of cuisines, including Chinese, Korean, Italian, French, Indian, and Brazilian. Representative dishes include garlic butter, garlic rice, garlic toast, peperoncino, ajillo, Japanese gyoza, soy sauce pickles, and tonkotsu ramen.

No. 0537 Leek (Allium fistulosum var. giganteum)

No.0538 Onion (Allium cepa)

Although it is a perennial plant, it is treated as an annual or biennial in cultivation. The onion leaf blade is hollow and cylindrical, with a pointed tip and a waxy surface. The leaf sheath is cylindrical and thickens under long-day, warm conditions to form a bulb, which then becomes a sphere. The flower stalk is longer than the leaves, cylindrical with a swollen center, thick and fleshy, bearing an inflorescence at the top. The flowers are borne in compound umbels, with flowering beginning in each inflorescence, until the whole thing becomes spherical. It can be distinguished from leeks by its opening perianth. The bulb is used as a vegetable. It is native to the mountainous regions of Central Asia. It was cultivated in ancient Egypt and can be seen in murals. Cultivated varieties diversified during the Greek and Roman eras and are mentioned in the Old Testament. However, it did not spread throughout Europe and America until the 16th or 17th century. Its spread in China is relatively recent, but it is now widely cultivated. It was introduced to Japan at the end of the Edo period or the beginning of the Meiji era, and large-scale cultivation began after the Taisho era. The first introduction of onion seeds and trial cultivation in Hokkaido took place in 1871 (Meiji 4), and by around 1882 (Meiji 15), direct seeding cultivation had become established, making Hokkaido the top producer in Japan at the time. In addition to sliced onions, onions are commonly used in dishes such as fried onions, onion rings, and onion soup. They are also frequently used as an ingredient in curry, stew, nikujaga (meat and potato stew), miso soup, omelets, oyakodon (chicken and egg rice bowl), gyudon (beef rice bowl), demi-glace sauce, tomato sauce, tartar sauce, and salsa.

No.0539.a Mitsukado Leek (Allium triquetrum)

A perennial herb, also known as Allium triquetrum. It has a chive-like odor. The bulb is nearly spherical with a thin, membranous outer layer. The leaves are broadly linear, about 5-9 mm wide, and flattened. It flowers from April to June. The flower stalk has three ridges and a triangular cross-section. It bears 3-15 flowers in an umbel inflorescence with a slender bract at the base. The perianth segments are broadly lanceolate, about 10-15 mm long, white with green stripes on the inside. The flowers are large for an Allium species, bell-shaped, and drooping. Native to the Mediterranean coast, it grows wild in southwestern Europe, northwestern Africa, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, in pastures, clearings, riverbanks, and roadsides up to 850 m above sea level. It has also been introduced to the British Isles, New Zealand, Turkey, Australia, California, Oregon, and South America, where it is known as an invasive alien species. In Japan, it is cultivated for ornamental purposes and has recently become naturalized. The entire plant is edible; it can be mixed with butter to make garlic butter, the leaves and flowers can be used in stir-fries, and the bulbs can be used in pickles. It is said to have a "scallion-like or subtle onion-like flavor."

No.0539.b Otomenilla Allium neapolitanum

A perennial plant. Also known as Allium neapolitanum or Allium cowanii.

No.0539.c Nothoscordum gracile (field chives)

This is a perennial herb. The leaves are 20-40 cm long and 4-10 mm wide. The flower stalks are 30-50 cm tall. The flowers bloom in May and June and consist of 10-15 flowers. The perianth segments are white and fragrant, and the anthers and filaments are dark brown to reddish-purple when young, but eventually turn yellow. It is native to southern North America and tropical America. It belongs to the genus Allium, and this is the only species that has naturalized in various parts of the world. It was introduced to Japan in the mid-Meiji period. The perianth segments are white, and the midrib is pinkish, which distinguishes it from the related species Allium fragrans. Be careful as they are often confused on the internet. This species was previously given the scientific names N. fragrans and N. inodorum, but Stearn (1986) clarified that the above scientific name is the correct name.

No.0539.d Nothoscordum bivalve (False Chives)

This is a perennial herb. The leaves are 10-20 cm long and 2-4 mm wide. It flowers in May. The flower stalk is 10-30 cm long and has 5-12 flowers. The perianth segments are white with yellow at the base and veins, and are 9-13 mm long. The anthers are yellow and about 2 mm long. It propagates in summer by small bulbs forming at the base of the parent plant. Native to eastern North America, it is cultivated for ornamental purposes and escapes into the wild. It can be distinguished from Allium spectabile by its leaves, which are 2-4 mm wide, the 5-12 flowers, and the white perianth segments with yellow near the base. Be careful as they are often confused on the internet.

No. 0540 Ipheion uniflorum

Also known as European Star-of-Bethlehem. A perennial herb. The entire plant has a chive-like smell. The bulb is about 2 cm long and ovate. The leaves are broadly linear, twisted, flattened, fleshy, 10-25 cm long and 5-8 mm wide. The flower stalk is 10-20 cm tall. The flowers bloom in March and April, with 1-2 flowers opening upwards at the tip of the flower stalk. They are white with purple streaks, and a prominent purple stripe runs down the center of the perianth segments. The perianth segments are 3.5-4.5 cm in diameter. The perianth is 6-lobed, and the lobes spread outwards. There is a pair of bracts on the flower stalk. It only appears above ground in spring. Native to Argentina, it is cultivated all over the world. It was introduced to Japan during the Meiji period as an ornamental plant and has become naturalized in various regions.

No.0541 Hamaomoto Crinum asiaticum var. japonicum

A perennial herb. Also known as Hamayu. The flower stalk is 30-50 cm tall and 3-7 cm in diameter. The leaves are evergreen, glossy, and lanceolate, 30-70 cm long and 4-10 cm wide. The base forms a leaf sheath that encloses the bulb. It flowers from July to September, with the flower stalk reaching 50-80 cm tall and bearing numerous flowers in an umbel. The perianth segments are white, linear, 7-8 cm long and 5-8 mm wide. They curl back when in bloom and are fragrant. The fused perianth tube is 5-6 cm long. The capsule is 2-2.5 cm long, and the seeds are spherical, 2-3 cm in diameter. It grows on sandy beaches along the coast. It is distributed in Honshu (west of southern Kanto), Shikoku, Kyushu, the Ryukyu Islands, China, Malaysia, and India. The northern limit is the isotherm with an average annual temperature of 15°C (minimum temperature of -3.5°C), which is called the Hamamoto line. It can also be found in southern Chiba Prefecture, but its northernmost limit is Tenjin Island in Sajima, Yokosuka City, on the Miura Peninsula.

No.0541.1 Taiwanese Crinum asiaticum var. sinicum

A perennial herb. Also known as Ogasawara Hamayu, Ogasawara Hamayu, and Oohama Omoto. It grows to a height of about 1.5m. It is a large species, with the stem at the base of the root reaching 20cm in diameter. The leaves are 2m long. In June and July, it produces flat flower stalks from the leaf axils, bearing white, fragrant flowers. The petals are tubular, elongated, curve outwards, and droop. The fruit is about 4cm in diameter and ripens to a bluish-brown color. It is distributed in Japan (Ogasawara Islands and Ryukyu Islands), Taiwan, southern China, and the Pacific Islands.

No. 0543 Red Spider Lily (Lycoris radiata var. radiata)

A perennial herb. Also known as Manjushage. The bulb is broadly ovate, about 3 cm in diameter, with a black outer skin. The leaves emerge in late autumn, forming clumps, and wither in April of the following year. They are glossy dark green, band-shaped, 30-40 cm long, and 6-8 mm wide. The flower stalk emerges in late September, reaching a height of 30-50 cm and bearing 5-7 flowers. The perianth segments are bright red, oblanceolate, 40 mm long, 5-6 mm wide, and strongly recurved. The tube is 6-10 mm wide. The stamens protrude conspicuously. The fruit is sterile and does not produce seeds. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands. The bulb, in particular, contains alkaloids such as lycorine. It is thought to be native to China and was introduced and spread in ancient times. It grows in clusters along the edges of fields, on embankments, and in cemeteries. There are theories that the bulbs were introduced along with the soil when rice cultivation was introduced, leading to the spread of the spider lily, or that the poisonous bulbs were deliberately brought in and planted on ridges and embankments to deter small animals that dig holes in the soil (moles, mice, etc.). Some believe that moles are carnivorous and therefore have no connection to spider lilies, but it is also said that earthworms, which are their food source, dislike spider lilies and do not live in the soil, so moles do not come near these spider lilies. However, the author has not confirmed the scientific basis for any of these theories. In one case where moles were actually given spider lily bulbs, they repeatedly ate and regurgitated them (Ando et al., 2016). It is well known that the bulbs can be used as medicine if used properly, and can also be used as famine food if the poison is removed by soaking them in water. Because it is a triploid (2n=33) and sterile, it is believed that the triploid spider lily, which suddenly appeared in China, was brought to Japan.

What are the differences between Lycoris radiata (Red Spider Lily), Lycoris radiata var. alba, Lycoris radiata var. alba, and Lycoris radiata var. alba? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species – Ecological Notes Web

Lycoris radiata (red spider lily), Lycoris radiata var. alba, Lycoris radiata var. alba, and Lycoris aurea are all perennial plants belonging to the genus Lycoris in the family Amaryllidaceae. They are very familiar to Japanese people because they are poisonous and their flowers bloom in clusters in autumn.

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No.0543.1 Lycoris radiata var. pumila

This is the wild species of the red spider lily (Lycoris radiata). Also known as the small red spider lily (Lycoris aurea), it is diploid (2n=22), making it fertile, and it is distinguished from the red spider lily (Lycoris aurea) by its early September flowering period and soft bulbs and leaves (Nishiyama, 1939). Furthermore, while the leaves of the red spider lily are dark green, those of the Chinese red spider lily are yellowish-green, and while the flowers of the red spider lily are deep red, those of the Chinese red spider lily are pale red. It is native to China and is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. The individual in the following photograph is identified as the Chinese red spider lily because of its pale color and fewer flowers, but it could also be the red spider lily.

No.0543.2 Lycoris radiata f. bicolor

A rare variety of spider lily with a white border around the perianth. It is uncommon to see this variety. Some varieties have wavy edges on the perianth segments, while others do not.

No.0544 White-flowered Red Spider Lily (Lycoris x albiflora)

A perennial plant. The flowers are white. Based on its karyomorphic shape, it is believed to be a hybrid of Lycoris radiata traubii and Lycoris radiata.

No. 0545 Lycoris traubii

Perennial herb. The bulb is ovate, about 5 cm in diameter. Leaves emerge in autumn, sword-shaped (broadly linear), about 60 cm long × 1.7–2.5 cm wide, with a pale midrib, gradually narrowing from base to apex. Flowering occurs from September to October. The flower stalk is about 60 cm long. The involucre consists of two lanceolate bracts, about 3.5 cm long × 0.8 cm wide. The perianth is yellow, with a tube 1.2–1.5 cm long. The lobes are strongly recurved, with a pale green midrib on the outer surface, oblanceolate, about 6 cm long × 0.4–1 cm wide, with strongly wavy margins. The stamens protrude slightly or long, 7–12 cm long. The filaments are yellow. The style has a rose-red tip. The capsule is triangular, dehiscing dorsally. Seeds are few in number, black, subglobose, about 7 mm in diameter (Flora of China). The Japanese name is said to come from the way the edges of the petals ripple, likened to the beard of Zhong Kui (a Taoist deity from Chinese folklore, depicted with a long beard), but its veracity is unknown. It also seems more likely to be a simple comparison to the way the stamens protrude in a ring shape. However, this characteristic is common to all plants in the Lycoris genus. It is distributed in Japan (Shikoku to the Southwest Islands), China, Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and inhabits shady and damp places such as slopes and rock crevices. It is also cultivated for ornamental purposes.

No.0547.a Amarcrinum memoria-corsii

Memoriacorsii amalcrinum is a provisional name given by the author. If read according to the scientific name, it would be Amalcrinum memoriacorsii. Amalcrinum hawardii is thought to be a synonym, but the author has not confirmed its academic history. It is an intergeneric hybrid variety of Amaryllis belladonna of the Amaryllis genus and Crinum moorei of the Crinum genus. The flowers resemble Amaryllis belladonna, but the tube is narrower and curved, and the color is pink. It has a bulb. The leaves are basal, string-shaped, about 30-60 cm long and less than 5 cm wide. The flowering period is from August to October. The flower stalk is leafless, 50-80 cm tall, and bears 10-15 flowers in an umbel at the top, with 6-8 flowers blooming sequentially. The flowers are 7.5-10 cm in diameter, trumpet-shaped, rose pink, pink, shell pink or white, and fragrant.

No.0549 Leucojum aestivum

A perennial plant. Also known as snowflake or lily-of-the-valley daffodil. The bulb is 2-4 cm long. The stem is tubular. The leaves are flat, similar to daffodils, 30-50 cm long and 0.5-2 cm wide, with a slightly pointed tip. It flowers from March to April. The flowers are about 3 cm long, white, lily-of-the-valley shaped, and bloom facing downwards. There are 6 perianth segments, (10) 13-22 mm long and 10-12 mm wide, with green spots on the edges. There are 6 stamens. The seeds are 5-7 mm long and black. Native to the Mediterranean coast, it is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes.

No.0549.a Acis autumnalis (Akizaki Snowflake)

This perennial herb grows to a height of 10-15 cm. It has a bulb 1.5 cm in diameter underground. The leaves are simple, basal leaves, numbering 6-7, and are very narrow and linear, 20-25 cm long. The leaves emerge after flowering and wither and go dormant before the rainy season of the following year; there are usually no leaves during the flowering period. One to four flowers bloom in an umbel-like arrangement at the end of a flower stalk that grows to a height of 10-15 cm, facing downwards. There are bracts at the base of the inflorescence. The flowers are 1 cm in diameter, bell-shaped, with six pale pink to white petals, and a pink base. It is found on both sides of the western Mediterranean, and is native to Portugal, Spain (including the Balearic Islands), Sardinia, and Sicily in Europe, and Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia in North Africa. It grows on rocky areas and stony mountainsides. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No. 0550 Japanese daffodil (Narcissus tazetta var. chinensis)

This is a perennial herb. The bulb is oval-shaped with a black outer skin. The leaves are greenish-white, emerge in late autumn, 20-40 cm long and 8-16 mm wide, with rounded tips. The flower stalks are 20-40 cm long. It blooms from December to March and is fragrant. The perianth segments are white, 15-18 mm long, and spread flat. The tube is 2 cm long. The corona is yellow and 4 mm high. It does not produce fruit. It grows wild on the coasts of Honshu (west of the Kanto region) and Kyushu, and is believed to have been introduced in ancient times. Varieties with yellow perianth segments, double flowers, and white coronas are horticultural varieties.

There are differences between Japanese daffodils and regular daffodils! Are they poisonous? How do they differ from chives? Where are they native to? Why did the flowers evolve to bloom in winter?

Daffodils are a very popular ornamental plant in Japan, blooming in winter. However, a little research reveals that they are sometimes called "Japanese daffodils" (Nihon-zuisen) and sometimes simply referred to as "daffodils." Is there any difference between Japanese daffodils and regular daffodils? Japanese daffodils are native to China…

ecological-information.com

No.0550.1 Double-flowered daffodil, Narcissus tazetta 'Plenus'‘

Yaezuisen is a double-flowered variety of Japanese daffodil.

No. 0552 Trumpet Daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus)

This is a perennial herb. The leaves are erect, up to 36 cm long and 0.6-1.3 cm wide. The flower stalks are roughly the same length as the leaves. The flowers are up to about 6.5 cm long, ranging from small to large, and are borne singly, facing downwards or sideways. The flower color is usually dark yellow or pale yellow, but some have white perianth segments and a yellow corona, and rarely, cream-colored or white flowers. The corona is trumpet-shaped with notches or serrations along the edges. The flowering period is from March to April. It is native to the Mediterranean coast of France, Spain, and Portugal, and is distributed as far as England, Germany, Belgium, and northern Italy. In Japan, it is cultivated for ornamental purposes.

No.0552.a Cyclamineus Narcissus 'Tete a tete'‘

Cyclamineus narcissus is the author's provisional name. It is a perennial plant that grows to a height of 15-20 cm, with 1-5 downward-facing flowers per stem. The perianth segments curl back later, and the corona is cup-shaped, with the original species being particularly characterized by its long corona. It blooms in winter and spring, with yellow (lemon-colored) perianth segments and corona. Tete-a-tete is a variety of Cyclamineus narcissus, and "Tete a tete" means "to whisper a secret" in French. It is a short plant, and since the flowers are planted in clusters of roughly the same height, the name comes from the image of the flowers whispering to each other.

No. 0554 Amaryllis Hippeastrum x hybridum

This is a perennial plant. Its Japanese name follows the "Ylist" designation. It was formerly classified under the genus Amaryllis, hence its name. Currently, it belongs to the genus Hippeastrum, and should technically be called by a different name, but it remains so due to convention. It was introduced to Europe from South America in the early 18th century and began to be cultivated. In 1799, the English clockmaker Arthur Johnson successfully crossed Hippeastrum vittatum with Hippeastrum reginae, resulting in the creation of Hippeastrum x johnsonii. Subsequently, cultivation became widespread, and numerous varieties were created through crossbreeding with various wild species, eventually leading to the current species. One or more sturdy, hollow, leafless flower stalks emerge from the bulb, reaching a height of 30-60 cm. The leaves are basal from the bulb, linear, 30-60 (90) cm long, green, entire, and parallel-veined. The flowers are densely clustered in groups of 2 to 6 at the tip of the flower stalk, funnel-shaped to bell-shaped, usually 10 to 20 cm in diameter, and orange, red, pink, purplish, or white in color, with or without various patterns such as stripes, spots, or veins. The capsule is round, about 1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter. The flowering period is usually from April to July, although some varieties bloom in autumn.

No. 0555 Zephyranthes candida

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The bulb is small and spherical, covered with a dark brown outer layer. The leaves grow in clumps, are narrowly linear, and erect, reaching about 20-40 cm in length. The flower stalk is 30 cm tall, bearing a single upward-facing flower at the terminal in summer. The perianth segments are pure white, with yellow to yellowish-green bases and veins. The perianth segments are about 4 cm long. There are bracts at the base of the flower, enclosing the ovary. The anthers are yellow, and the filaments are yellowish-green and erect. The stigma is rounded at the tip and divided into three lobes. Native to South America, it was introduced to Japan in the early Meiji period (around 1870). It is widely cultivated throughout Japan and has escaped cultivation around human settlements.

No. 0556 Zephyranthes carinata (False Saffron)

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The bulb is ovate, and the leaves are linear and clustered, 15-30 cm long. The flower stalk is about 30 cm long, with a single flower facing upwards at the end. The flower is bright pink, with perianth segments 6-8 cm long that spread flat, almost curving at the tip. The anthers are yellow and slender. The stigma is thick and three-lobed at the tip. Below the ovary is a pedicel enclosed by bracts. Native to Central America and the West Indies, it was introduced to Japan during the Edo period (around 1845) and has naturalized in warmer regions.

What are the differences between Zephyranthes candida, false saffron, and saffron? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Why is it called "false"? In its native habitat, only beetles visited the flowers!?

Zephyranthes candida and false saffron are widely cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes, but there may be some confusion regarding their Japanese names. The most significant difference is that the inner part of the perianth lobes of Zephyranthes candida is white, while that of false saffron is bright pink. False saffron is called "modoki" (false)...

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No.0556.a Zephyranthes tubispatha

"Tubispatusatamasudare" is the author's provisional name. In Japan, it is known as Habranthus tubispathus, but García et al. (2019) considers it a synonym, and note that Zephyranthes tubispatha is the correct name. It is a perennial herb, growing to a height of 10-20 cm. It has a bulb underground. The leaves are basal, fleshy, linear, and wither by the time of flowering. It flowers from June to October in North America and from August to October in Japan. A single flower blooms at the tip of a flower stalk that emerges from the bulb. The flower is a funnel-shaped, six-petaled flower about 3 cm long, blooming slightly sideways. The flower color is yellowish-orange with darker veins on the outside. Each flower closes after one day. When it rains, the flower stalk grows and the flower opens. There are six stamens, and the tip of the stigma of the pistil is three-lobed. The fruit is a capsule. It is distributed in the United States (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Texas), South Africa, Argentina, Brazil, central and southern Chile, and southern Uruguay, inhabiting grasslands, plains, and disturbed areas. It is unclear whether its distribution in the United States is natural or anthropogenic, and there is a theory that it was introduced by Spanish missionaries via Mexico, but it is not currently found in Mexico (Flora of North America). It is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes.

No.0556.b Zephyranthes bifida

"Bifida Tamasudare" is the author's provisional name. In Japan, it is known as Rhodophiala bifida, but García et al. (2019) considers it a synonym, and note that Zephyranthes bifida is the correct name. It is a perennial herb with a bulb. The bulb is 3.7-5 cm in diameter. The leaves are 20-30 cm long, string-shaped, emerge after flowering, and wither in early summer. The flowering period is (July-)August-October. The flower stalk is 25-30 (-40) cm long. The flowers are borne in umbels of 3-10, trumpet-shaped, red, dark red, or pink. It is found from Misiones (Paraguay) in the northeast to Buenos Aires (Argentina) in the east, with red flowers in the north, dark red or pink flowers in northern Buenos Aires, and dark red flowers in southern Buenos Aires. The anthers of the stamens are yellow. Native to Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, it is rarely cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. It is superficially similar to Zephyranthes advena (synonym: Rhodophiala advena). There is no information online on how to distinguish between these former Rhodophiala species, but The European Garden Flora Editorial Committee (1986: p.298) contains a key that states that Rhodophiala advena has "elliptical, sharp perianth segments and spathes of 2.5-5 cm," while Rhodophiala bifida has "inversely lanceolate perianth segments with claws and spathes of 5-7.5 cm." According to this, the following individual should be Rhodophiala bifida. However, image searches for Rhodophiala advena and Rhodophiala bifida online show a mix of characteristics, including those from overseas, making it difficult to understand. It's possible that the morphology changed during the breeding process in horticulture, or that many people don't understand the difference between Rhodophiala advena and Rhodophiala bifida.

No.0556.c Yellow-flowered Zephyranthes (Sternbergia lutea)

This is a perennial herb with a bulb. The bulb is subglobose. Leaves and flowers emerge simultaneously, or flowers emerge first. There are 9 or fewer leaves, 8-25 cm long and 1-2 cm wide, with a keel (midrib), a rounded apex, and papillae along the margins. The leaves remain after flowering, survive the winter, wither in early summer, and the plant goes dormant in summer. The bracts are partially green and acute at the apex. Two to three flower stalks emerge from the bulb, 5-20 cm long, bearing 1-3 flowers in clusters, yellow and resembling crocuses. The perianth is showy. The perianth segments are 3.5-7 cm long and 1-2 cm wide, spatulate-lanceolate, with rounded or short mucronate apex, and bright yellow. The ovary is sessile. The capsule is 1.5-2.5 cm long and 1-1.5 cm wide. Flowering occurs in autumn, from September to October. It is widely distributed from the Balearic Islands in the western Mediterranean to Tajikistan in Central Asia, and is cultivated for ornamental purposes in various countries, including Japan. Cultivated varieties are typically triploid, while wild varieties are diploid.

No.0556.d Agapanthus praecox

This is a perennial herb. Its rhizome swells like that of a taro root. The leaves are 10-35 cm long and 1-2 cm wide. It bears 20-30 flowers in an umbel at the end of the flower stalk. The corolla is funnel-shaped, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, and deeply 6-lobed at the tip. The flowers are blue, purple, or white. The fruit is a 3-chambered capsule that ripens in autumn, and the seeds have wings. Native to South Africa, it was imported to Japan during the Meiji era for ornamental purposes. There are many cultivated varieties. It can be seen growing next to fields and along roadsides, and its large size makes it conspicuous in early summer. Agapanthus africanus is a different species and is not commonly cultivated.

No.0556.e *Cyrtanthus mackenii subsp. mackenii*

Also known as Cyrtanthus or Cyrtanthus mackenii. Its Japanese name is Petticoat Daffodil. Note that Narcissus bulbocodium is also sometimes called the "Petticoat Daffodil". It is a perennial herb, with a bulb 2-5 cm long and 1.5-3.5 cm wide, tapering to a slender neck. Four to five leaves emerge from the bulb, linear-lanceolate, (20-)30-40 (-50) cm long and 0.7-1.8 cm wide, hollow, ascending or curved, glossy green. The flower stalk emerges from the center of the leaves, 30-50 cm long, bearing 3-6 (-8) flowers (10-15 in cultivated varieties). There are two bracts below the inflorescence. The flowers are pale yellow or white (cultivated varieties can be apricot, orange, pink, red, white, or lemon yellow), slender and long funnel-shaped (tubular), 3.5–4.5 (–5) cm long, with a curved, long tube and ovate, bell-shaped or lobes 0.5–1 cm long, and have a sweet fragrance. The capsule is ovate, 1–2 cm long. The flowers bloom in winter. In the wild in the Southern Hemisphere, the flowering period is July–August (late winter). Cultivated varieties have a longer flowering period, from July to February (winter to spring in the Northern Hemisphere: November–May). Native to South Africa, it is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. Subsp. mackenii has pure white flowers, while subsp. cooperi has yellow to cream-colored flowers. Butterflies and bumblebees visit subsp. mackenii, while hawk moths visit subsp. cooperi (Snijman & Meerow, 2010). The evolution, diversification, and flower-visiting ecology of this genus have been studied in detail.

No.0556.f Clivia miniata

This evergreen perennial herb is called "upward-facing blooming" because, unlike its close relative Clivia nobilis, which has downward-facing flowers, this species blooms upward. It grows to a height of 40-50 cm. It has fleshy roots. The leaves are 40-60 cm long, broad, flattened, sword-shaped, and arranged in two longitudinal rows. The base of the leaves overlaps in a tubular shape, enclosing the growing point, so it forms a bulb-like structure at the base. A flower stalk extends from the center of the leaves, bearing an umbel inflorescence of 15-20 flowers at its tip. There are several involucral bracts below the inflorescence. The flowers are orange to scarlet, funnel-shaped, large, and bloom upward. The fruit is 1-2 cm in diameter and ripens in autumn. There are horticultural varieties with white or yellow flowers and variegated leaves. It is distributed in Natal, South Africa. It mainly grows in damp places that avoid strong sunlight, such as in forests and under rocks.

References

Ando, Motoichi; Hashimoto, Marina; Ueno, Shinichiro; and Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki. 2016. Efficacy tests of mole repellents in captivity and in the wild. Journal of the Japan Society for Odor and Fragrance Environment 47(2): 119-127. https://doi.org/10.2171/jao.47.119

García, N., Meerow, AW, Arroyo-Leuenberger, S., Oliveira, RS, Dutilh, JH, Soltis, PS, & Judd, WS 2019. Generic classification of Amaryllidaceae tribe Hippeastreae. Taxon 68(3): 481-498. https://doi.org/10.1002/tax.12062

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Nishiyama, 3. 1939. Chromosome number of Lycoris from China. Journal of Genetics 15(2): 83-85. https://doi.org/10.1266/jjg.15.83

Snijman, DA, & Meerow, AW 2010. Floral and macroecological evolution within Cyrtanthus (Amaryllidaceae): inferences from combined analyzes of plastid ndhF and nrDNA ITS sequences. South African Journal of Botany 76(2): 217-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2009.10.010

Tsukamoto, Yotaro. 1994. Encyclopedia of Horticultural Plants, Compact Edition. Shogakukan, Tokyo. 3710pp. ISBN: 9784093051118

The European Garden Flora Editorial Committee. 1986. The European garden flora: a manual for the identification of plants cultivated in Europe, both out-of-doors and under glass (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press. 448pp. ISBN: 9780521248594

Daffodils are a very popular ornamental plant in Japan, blooming in winter. However, a little research reveals that they are sometimes referred to as "Nihon-zuisen" (Japanese daffodil) and sometimes simply as "suisen" (daffodil). Is there a difference between Nihon-zuisen and suisen? Nihon-zuisen refers to a specific species native to China, but when simply referred to as suisen, it could be another name for Nihon-zuisen, or it could be a general term for various other species. Let's understand this difference properly. Nihon-zuisen is native to the Mediterranean coast, and after being cultivated and improved in China, it was introduced to Japan, so it is not native to Japan. Therefore, surprisingly, historical records only mention it from the Muromachi period onward, and it seems that its popularity came later. It is poisonous and can cause food poisoning if mistaken for chives or wild onions, but daffodils can be distinguished by their odorless leaves, shallow depression in the center, and the presence of a bulb. But why do Nihon-zuisen bloom in winter? Research in Israel, where the wild species *Daffodil serrata* exists, has shown instances of winter blooming to attract hummingbird hawk-moths that overwinter there. Therefore, it is highly likely that winter blooming is a remnant of its time living along the Mediterranean coast. This article will explain the classification, history, toxicity, and pollination ecology of *Daffodil serrata*.

What is the difference between Japanese daffodils and regular daffodils?

A little research reveals that daffodils are sometimes called "Nihon-suisen" (Japanese daffodil) and sometimes simply "suisen" (daffodil). Are there any biological differences between these two?

Narcissus tazzetta ver. chinensis refers to a variety of Narcissus tazzetta, a member of the Amaryllidaceae family, that has begun to propagate vegetatively in China. The cluster daffodil (Narcissus tazzetta) is native to the Mediterranean coast of southern Europe.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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Both the cluster daffodil and the Japanese daffodil have short, yellow coronas (the cup-shaped part of the flower), and white sepals and petals. While the Japanese daffodil has 4 to 8 flowers on a single stem, the cluster daffodil has a slightly larger number of flowers, 5 to 15, blooming in clusters.

The Japanese narcissus originated from the cluster narcissus, which traveled from the Mediterranean to China (before the Sui and Tang dynasties) via the Silk Road and was then selectively bred. In Japan, although the exact time is unknown, it is believed to have arrived or drifted ashore in ancient times (Fukui Prefecture Tourism and Sales Department, Cultural Promotion Division, 2019). It has been cultivated for ornamental purposes since ancient times, and is now found growing wild along the coasts from Kanto westward to Kyushu (Hayashi et al., 2013).

In short, the Japanese daffodil is native to China! It's a very confusing name. It's probably a name given at a time when it had become naturalized and its exact origin was unknown, but let's make sure we understand it correctly now.

On the other hand, the term "narcissus" does not refer to a single biological species. In this case, two meanings are possible.

First, it can refer to another name for the Japanese daffodil. Sometimes the Japanese daffodil is simply called "daffodil."

The second meaning may refer to the entire genus *Narcissus*. In some cases, the term "narcissus" may include species other than *Narcissus japonica*.

Other notable species include Narcissus pseudonarcissus, a trumpet daffodil with a prominently protruding corona and yellow petals in its wild form, and Narcissus cyclamineus 'Tete a tete' (miniature daffodil), which is small in both its overall appearance and flowers, and also has yellow petals, making it particularly well-known in Japan.

Narcissus poeticus (red-corolla narcissus), Narcissus bulbocodium (petticoat narcissus with skirt-like petals), Narcissus jonquilla (large yellow-petaled narcissus), and Narcissus verna (a hybrid of Narcissus verna and Narcissus trumpet narcissus with large, trumpet-like petals and a short corona). Narcissus x odorus is also known.

In addition, there are varieties whose original species are unknown.

Furthermore, although they belong to completely different groups, the following also bear the name "narcissus": Cyrtanthus mackenii subsp. mackenii (Amaryllidaceae, Cyrtanthus genus), Alstroemeria pulchella (Alstroemeria, Alstroemeriaceae), Freesia x hybrida (Freesia, Iridaceae), and Hyacinthoides hispanica (Scilla, Asparagaceae). Their flower shapes are not similar at all, so be careful not to confuse them.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #068] What are the species of the Liliaceae family? Photo list

The Alstroemeriaceae family is mostly perennial. It is distributed in Central and South America. Many species have tubers or rhizomes, and many Alstroemeria species have beautiful flowers, leading to extensive cultivation as ornamental plants. The flowers consist of three inner perianth segments and three outer perianth segments (sometimes fused, sometimes not)...

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[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #083] What are the species of the Iridaceae family? Photo list

The Iridaceae family consists of annual or perennial herbs. They have rhizomes, corms, or bulbs underground. The leaves are sword-shaped, flattened, alternate, and strabiate. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. There are three inner and three outer perianth segments, either identical in shape or with larger outer segments, fused at the base...

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[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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What is the history of the Japanese daffodil? Its popularity in Japan only began after the Muromachi period, which is surprisingly late.

Although its Japanese name includes "Japan," as mentioned above, the Japanese daffodil is native to China. When did it become known in Japan?

Although the exact period is unclear, the records of narcissus in Japan are surprisingly recent, with its first appearance believed to be in the "Shogakushu," a Japanese dictionary compiled during the Muromachi period.

On the other hand, it appears to have been depicted in paintings during the Heian period. From the Muromachi period onward, it was used as a tea ceremony flower and cut flower, and in the Edo period, detailed descriptions of its cultivation methods were found. It has been used as a cut flower and horticultural plant ever since. There seems to have been a slight delay between its introduction to Japan and its subsequent rise in popularity.

Is it poisonous and a frequent subject of food poisoning news? How can you distinguish it from chives?

Although daffodils are now very popular as ornamental plants, they belong to the Amaryllidaceae family and contain the common Amaryllidaceae alkaloids (lycorine, galantamine, and tazetine). Lycorine is heat-resistant, so even after heating, it can cause symptoms of food poisoning such as vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, headache, and coma.

Because its leaves resemble those of chives and wild onions, and its bulb resembles that of an onion, food poisoning due to mistaken consumption occurs occasionally and is often reported in the news. Chives and wild onions often grow as wild plants, so extreme caution is necessary. As of a 2014 paper, cases have been reported every year since 2002, with up to six cases reported in a single year (Toda et al., 2014).

The Nagano City Public Health Center states that daffodils and chives can be distinguished by the following: (1) Daffodil leaves have no odor, but chives have a distinctive strong smell; (2) Daffodil leaves have a shallow depression in the center, while chives are flat and somewhat thick; and (3) Daffodils have bulbs, but chives do not.

What are the differences between Ipheion uniflorum, Ipheion leek, and Ipheion japonica? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Are they edible?

All three species—Ipheion uniflorum, Allium sibiricum, and Allium sibiricum—belong to the Amaryllidaceae family, Allioideae subfamily, and share the name "nira" (leek). They are common perennial plants found in fields and urban areas. However, their confusing names can make it difficult for those unfamiliar with these three species to distinguish between them...

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Such a beautiful and eye-catching flower, yet it was useless to the plant itself?

The Japanese daffodil blooms from December to April (Hayashi et al., 2013), and its flowers are creamy white (Fukui Prefecture Tourism and Sales Department, Cultural Promotion Division, 2019). It consists of three outer perianth segments (sepals) and three inner perianth segments (petals), which are joined at the base. Furthermore, a structure unique to daffodils is a yellow, cup-shaped part, which is called the corona. The stamens and pistil are housed inside this.

While they are usually single-flowered, double-flowered varieties are also known, and these are called Yaezuisen Narcissus tazetta 'Plenus'.

They are very conspicuous, and considering the flower's primary role of pollination, one might assume they attract many insects to produce seeds. However, unfortunately, the Japanese population only reproduces through bulb division.

This is a bit complicated, but the chromosomes are triploid. In triploid organisms, there are three sets of chromosomes. When creating cells that produce offspring, the two sets of chromosomes that normally exist should be divided into one set each, but this doesn't happen in triploid organisms, so they cannot reproduce through seeds.

In other words, flowers are entirely for human enjoyment and serve no purpose whatsoever in terms of producing seeds.

Of course, since it has been spread all over the world by humans for the purpose of ornamental purposes, it can be said that the Japanese daffodil is a species that has been very successful in reproducing without producing seeds.

There's some interesting research going on about the original species of daffodil! Could it even explain why they bloom in winter?

However, there is a great mystery surrounding the Japanese daffodil. Why does it bloom in winter? Of course, it could be the result of selective breeding, but we know that this is not the case.

This is because the wild species of the Japanese daffodil, the cluster daffodil, which properly reproduces through pollination and seed propagation, sometimes blooms in winter.

In Israel, an interesting study has been conducted on the relationship between the flowering period and habitat of the daffodil (Arroyo & Dafni, 1995).

There are two populations of the daffodil species: one that grows in wetlands and another that grows on hillsides.

This study revealed that the insects that visit the flowers of the daffodil (Narcissus spp.) that contribute to pollination differ depending on the habitat. In wetlands, hawk moths were the main pollinators, while in hilly areas, solitary bees and hoverflies were the primary visitors.

Consequently, we also found that the shape of the flowers in the wetland population and the hillside population were slightly different.

In wetland populations, flowers with shorter pistils were more common. The hummingbird hawk-moth has a very long proboscis specialized for sucking nectar, so it often inserts its body deep into flowers to obtain nectar. Therefore, it is thought that flowers with shorter pistils have become more common so that the hummingbird hawk-moth can pollinate them from deep inside the flower.

On the other hand, the populations in the hills had more flowers with longer pistils. Solitary bees and hoverflies have short mouths and are specialized in feeding on pollen from the surface of flowers, so they do not insert their bodies deep into the flower to collect pollen, remaining on the surface. Therefore, it is thought that the hill populations had more flowers with longer pistils to prevent these insects from stealing the pollen without touching the pistil.

Furthermore, it was discovered that the flowering period differs depending on the activity period of the insects that visit the flowers.

In wetland populations, the flowers bloomed in January and February. This is thought to be an adaptation to the overwintering hummingbird hawk-moth.

In hilly areas, the flowers bloom in October and November. This is thought to be an adaptation to solitary bees and hoverflies that are active in the autumn.

Thus, the daffodil (Narcissus sibiricus) changed the shape of its flowers and its flowering period to suit its habitat.

It is thought that the Japanese daffodil began blooming in winter in Japan when it was first cultivated and its behavior was stabilized. However, it is possible that its original behavior was an adaptation to winter insects such as hummingbird hawk-moths, which were found in its native habitat, such as Israel.

Japanese daffodils are known as one of the few flowers that brighten up winter, but when you consider the circumstances surrounding their origins, don't you feel a sense of the long history and causal connection between the Mediterranean and Japan?

Are flowers really useless?

As mentioned above, Japanese daffodils do not require insects. Moreover, since they bloom in the middle of winter, it seems as though there are no insects at all that would come to them.

However, there are many instances on the internet showing the hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus visiting, and I have also confirmed this myself. Among hoverflies, there are known species, like Episyrphus balteatus, that are active even in the middle of winter.

There are currently no reports of any individuals other than the triploid species that reproduce by seed being present in Japan, but considering the instances of them becoming wild on coastlines, it's a bit puzzling whether they can reproduce to that extent solely through parthenogenesis. My personal opinion is that since insects are also seen in this area, I'm interested in the possibility that insects might be involved.

References

Arroyo, J., & Dafni, A. 1995. Variations in habitat, season, flower traits and pollinators in dimorphic Narcissus tazetta L.(Amaryllidaceae) in Israel. New Phytologist 129(1): 135-145. ISSN: 0028-646X, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1995.tb03017.x

Fukui Prefectural Government, Tourism and Sales Department, Cultural Promotion Division. 2019. Daffodil Fields of the Echizen Coast: Cultural Landscape Preservation Survey Report. Fukui Prefectural Government, Tourism and Sales Department, Cultural Promotion Division, Fukui. 258pp. https://www.pref.fukui.lg.jp/doc/bunshin/cultural-landscupes_d/fil/honpen.pdf

Hayashi, Yasaka, Kadota, Yuichi, and Hirano, Takahisa. 2013. Yamakei Handy Illustrated Guide 1: Wildflowers (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 664pp. ISBN: 9784635070195

Toda, M., Unoyama, C., & Kasuga, F. 2014. Trends in food poisoning cases caused by higher plants in Japan over the past 50 years. Journal of Food Hygiene 55(1): 55-63. https://doi.org/10.3358/shokueishi.55.55

Zephyranthes candida and false saffron are widely cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes, but there may be confusion regarding their Japanese names. The biggest difference is that the inside of the perianth lobes of Zephyranthes candida are white, while those of false saffron are bright pink. False saffron may seem similar to saffron, as its name "false saffron" suggests, but the flower color of saffron is completely different. This name originates from the Edo period, when it was imported and mistaken for saffron due to the scarcity of botanical records. While most flowers in the Zephyranthes genus are self-pollinating, false saffron is known to attract many beetles in Mexico. The fruit is a capsule and is likely dispersed by gravity. This article will explain the classification, origin of the names, and pollination ecology of Zephyranthes candida and false saffron.

Two species of the Zephyranthes genus, native to Central and South America, are popular as ornamental plants.

Zephyranthes candida, also known as rain lily, is a cold-hardy evergreen perennial plant native to the La Plata River basin in Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, as well as Chile and Peru. It was introduced to Japan in 1871-72 as an ornamental plant, and some have become naturalized (Tsukamoto, 1994).

Zephyranthes carinata, also known as false saffron, is native to Mexico and Guatemala, but has spread from the southern United States to Costa Rica, the Antilles, and South America (Fernández-Alonso & Groenendijk, 2018). In Japan, it is widely cultivated and some varieties have become naturalized.

Both belong to the genus Zephyranthes in the family Amaryllidaceae, and a common characteristic is that their bulbs contain toxins such as lycorine (Tsukamoto, 1994; Mutsuga et al., 2001).

What is the difference between Zephyranthes candida and false saffron?

Although both have similar shapes, the clear difference between the two species is that the inside of the perianth lobes is white in Zephyranthes candida, while in false saffron it is bright pink. Also, the stamens of false saffron are slightly longer.

Zephyranthes candida blooms from July to September, bearing flowers 4-5 cm in diameter on 20-30 cm tall stalks that face upwards. The perianth lobes are 6-lobed, white on the inside and pale pink at the base of the outer surface.

False saffron flowers bloom from June to October, producing relatively large flowers about 6 cm in diameter, which also face upwards. The perianth lobes are 6-lobed and, unlike those of Zephyranthes candida, are a vivid pink color (Tsukamoto, 1994).

They belong to the same genus, Zephyranthes, in the Amaryllidaceae family, but if they are in bloom, you would hardly mistake them for each other.

However, there are several closely related species. The following article provides more information about closely related members of the genus Zephyranthes.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #086] What are the species of the Amaryllidaceae family? Photo list

The Amaryllidaceae family typically consists of perennial herbs with bulbs and basal leaves. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. They are borne in terminal umbels or singly on the flower stalk, with an involucre at the base of the inflorescence. They have three outer perianth segments and three inner perianth segments, and some also have a corona...

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What is the difference between saffron and false saffron?

The Japanese name for false saffron is "saffron-like," which is a Japanese name for something resembling saffron. Why is that?

This stems from the fact that it was long mistaken for saffron in Japan. The first sighting of false saffron in Japan is believed to have been in 1845 during the Edo period, when Noda Seika, a plant expert specializing in the identification of introduced plants, cultivated bulbs that had been mixed in with pineapple cultivation soil. At that time, false saffron was mistakenly identified as the same species as saffron, and it wasn't until the Meiji era that it became clear that they were different species (Isono, 2007).

Actual saffron belongs to the iris family and is a completely different classification. Furthermore, its flowers are pale purple with red pistils. However, the overall shape and the fact that its anthers are yellow are somewhat similar, and it's possible that during the period of national isolation, it was difficult to properly distinguish between them with limited information (see the article below for more information on saffron).

On the other hand, the name Tamasudare is said to come from the fact that its small white flowers resemble "jewels" and the way its leaves are clustered together resembles a "bamboo blind."

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #083] What are the species of the Iridaceae family? Photo list

The Iridaceae family consists of annual or perennial herbs. They have rhizomes, corms, or bulbs underground. The leaves are sword-shaped, flattened, alternate, and strabiate. The flowers are bisexual and radially or bilaterally symmetrical. There are three inner and three outer perianth segments, either identical in shape or with larger outer segments, fused at the base...

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Are nearly 90% of the beetles that visit pink flowers?

It is believed that 80% of the Zephyranthes genus, to which Zephyranthes candida and Zephyranthes saffron belong, produces seeds through self-pollination.

However, attracting insects to obtain pollen from other individuals is also important in order to eliminate genetic bias. Therefore, research is being conducted to determine which insects visit false saffron.

According to research from Mexico, the plant's native habitat, 86% of the insects that visit it are beetles called Soldier Beetles, while 12% is visited by bees (Argueta-Guzmán et al., 2013). This might be surprising, as its striking appearance might suggest that butterflies or other insects would be more likely to visit. While not yet fully studied, it's possible that the bees are attracted by the pollen.

Are the fruits capsules dispersed by gravity?

All species in the genus Zephyranthes have capsules as their fruit.

The capsules of Zephyranthes candida are subglobose, about 1.2 cm in diameter. When ripe, they split into three sections, releasing black seeds.

The capsule of the false saffron is subglobose. When mature, it splits into three sections. The seeds are black, with 3 to 5 black seeds in each chamber.

Although the exact methods of seed dispersal are not fully understood, it is believed that closely related species with nearly identical seed shapes are dispersed over short distances by gravity, wind, or animal feeding (Fernández-Alonso & Groenendijk, 2004).

References

Argueta-Guzmán, M. P, Barrales-Alcalá, D. A, Galicia-Pérez, A., Jordan, G., & Mandujano MC 2013. Sistema reproductivo y visitantes florales de Zephyranthes carinata Herb (Asparagales: Amaryllidaceae). 100-117. ISSN: 0526-717X, https://biblat.unam.mx/hevila/Cactaceasysuculentasmexicanas/2013/vol58/no4/1.pdf

Fernández-Alonso, JL, & Groenendijk, JP 2004. A new species of Zephyranthes Herb. sl (Amaryllidaceae Hippeastreae), with notes on the genus in Colombia. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 28(107): 177-186. ISSN: 0370-3908, http://hdl.handle.net/10261/33396

Isono, Naohide. 2007. Chronological Table of Horticultural Plants Introduced to Japan Before the Meiji Era. Keio University Hiyoshi Journal, Natural Sciences 42: 27-58. ISSN: 0911-7237, https://koara.lib.keio.ac.jp/xoonips/modules/xoonips/detail.php?koara_id=AN10079809-20070930-0027

Mutsuga, M., Kojima, K., Nose, M., Inoue, M., & Ogihara, Y. 2001. Cytotoxic activities of alkaloids from Zephyranthes carinata. Natural Medicines 55(4): 201-204. ISSN: 1340-3443, https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/10759797

Tsukamoto, Yotaro. 1994. Encyclopedia of Horticultural Plants, Compact Edition. Shogakukan, Tokyo. 3710pp. ISBN: 9784093051118

Source

This article is a significantly expanded version of a piece originally published in the following book.