Both Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum belong to the mint family and are sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes. Their most significant commonality is the similar shape of their flowers. Specifically, both have very long stamens and pistils that curve downwards (curl) and protrude far from the flower. Therefore, they may sometimes be confused. However, these two species have different distributions and differ at the genus level. Specifically, there are differences in how the plants grow, the markings on the flowers, and the amount of hair on the leaves. This article will explain the differences between Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum.

What are Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum frutescens?

Tripora divaricata, also known as Caryopteris erythrosora, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in China and the Korean Peninsula, growing in mountain foothills and fields (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Rotheca myricoides, also known as Blue Elfin or Blue Wing, is an evergreen shrub widely distributed in East and South Africa, and cultivated in botanical gardens in Japan for ornamental purposes (RBG Kew, 2023). In Japan, many articles list its scientific name as Clerodendrum ugandense, but this is considered a synonym (former scientific name) overseas.

Both belong to the mint family and are sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes. Their most significant commonality is the similar shape of their flowers.

Specifically, the corolla is bluish-purple, has a long corolla tube, and is two-lipped, with the upper lip divided into two lobes and the lower lip into three lobes, appearing to be divided into a total of five parts. The central lobe of the lower lip is particularly large and recurved. The stamens and pistil are very long, curved downwards (curled), and protrude far outside the flower.

This highly unique characteristic is known to play a role in cleverly attaching pollen to the backs of bumblebees, thereby facilitating pollination (Tie et al., 2023).

Furthermore, the leaves also have coarse serrations, and their shape is quite similar.

These characteristics may sometimes lead to confusion between cultivated and non-cultivated individuals.

What is the difference between Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum?

However, these two species are quite far apart taxonomically (Ohashi et al., 2017; Herman & Condy, 2017).

First, there is a major difference between these two species: Clerodendrum trichotomum belongs to the genus Clerodendrum, while Clerodendrum sibiricum belongs to the genus Clerodendrum.

Therefore, it can be expected that there will be significant differences in morphology as well.

The similarity in flower shapes is merely a coincidence, but as mentioned above, their purpose is the same, making this an interesting example of convergent evolution occurring in East Asia and Africa for the same purpose.

Specifically, the difference is that Clerodendrum trichotomum (genus Clerodendrum) is a herbaceous plant, while Clerodendrum sibiricum (genus Clerodendrum) is a shrub.

In other words, the bark of the Caryopteris plant does not become woody like that of a tree.

If we focus only on the two species, Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum, there are many other differences as well.

Regarding the leaves, there is a difference in that Clerodendrum trichotomum lacks long hairs on the leaf blade and petiole, and short hairs are difficult to find unless you look very carefully, whereas Clerodendrum sibiricum has many long hairs on the leaf blade and petiole, which are clearly visible in photographs.

It should be noted that the leaf shape of Clerodendrum trichotomum varies greatly; some have rounded leaf tips, unlike Clerodendrum trichotomum, while others have tail-like leaf tips, similar to Clerodendrum trichotomum.

Regarding the flowers, one difference is that Clerodendrum trichotomum has a mottled corolla, while Clerodendrum sibiricum does not.

The above should make the distinction clear. In the case of wild specimens in Japan, of course, only Clerodendrum trichotomum is the same. In fact, Clerodendrum frutescens is rarely cultivated, so you may not have many opportunities to see it.

References

Herman, PPJ, & Condy, G. 2017. Rotheca myricoides sensu lato (Lamiaceae: Ajugoideae). Flowering Plants of Africa 65: 146-152. ISSN: 0015-4504, ISBN: 9781928224204, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318013789

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

RBG Kew. 2023. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Tie, S., He, YD, Lázaro, A., Inouye, DW, Guo, YH, & Yang, CF 2023. Floral trait variation across individual plants within a population enhances defense capability to nectar robbing. Plant Diversity 45(3): 315-325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2022.11.002

Angelica keiskei, Angelica pubescens, and Angelica japonica all belong to the Angelica genus of the Apiaceae family and are medium to large perennial herbs with thick stems and broad leaves. The structure of their leaves, flowers, and fruits is very similar, which is characteristic of the Apiaceae family. Furthermore, the swollen, sac-like base of the petiole and the flattened fruit are typical features of this group. However, they can be distinguished by checking the amount of hair on the leaves and the presence or absence of involucral bracts. The flowers, which are composed of umbels, are small and undergo sex change. The fruit is a schizocarp, flattened, and has a membranous, somewhat broad wing. This article will explain the classification and morphology of Angelica keiskei, Angelica pubescens, and Angelica japonica.

What are Ashitaba, Shishiudo, and Hamaudo?

Angelica keiskei, also known as Ashitaba or Shii-gusa, is a perennial herb that grows along the coast and is distributed in Honshu (southern Kanto region, Izu Islands, Tokai region, Kii Peninsula) and the Ogasawara Islands of Japan (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018; Ohashi et al., 2017).

Angelica pubescens var. pubescens, also known as wild angelica, is a perennial herb distributed throughout Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, growing in forest edges and grasslands throughout the region except for alluvial plains.

Angelica japonica, also known as beach angelica, is a perennial herb that grows along the coast and is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, as well as in Korea (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018; Hayashi et al., 2013).

Both are medium to large perennial herbs belonging to the Angelica genus of the Apiaceae family, characterized by thick stems and broad leaves. The leaf, flower, and fruit structures, which are typical of the Apiaceae family, are all very similar.

All species in the genus Angelica share the common trait of having flattened, hairless fruits with somewhat broad, membranous wings. Furthermore, the three species mentioned above are particularly similar in that the stalks of their large umbel inflorescences are covered with short hairs or hair-like projections, either entirely or internally, and the base of the petiole is swollen and sac-like. Therefore, identification can sometimes be difficult.

What are the differences between Ashitaba, Shishiudo, and Hamaudo?

There are 23 species of Angelica native to Japan, and it's impossible to cover all of them here, but let's consider the three species mentioned earlier.

First, Angelica pubescens lacks involucral bracts and has many curled fine hairs on the veins of the underside of the leaves, whereas Angelica keiskei and Angelica japonica have involucral bracts and the underside of the leaves is hairless.

The term "involucral bracts" may be unfamiliar, but they are thin, leaf-like green structures that grow at the base of the pedicel (the slender part connecting the flower to the plant body), and they can be found in some species of the Apiaceae family. In Angelica keiskei and Angelica japonica, you can see thin, green, leaf-like structures mixed in with the flowers.

Regarding Angelica keiskei and Angelica japonica, the main difference is that Angelica keiskei has almost no hairs on the midrib on the upper surface of the leaf and on the upper surface of the leaf axis, while Angelica japonica has dense short hairs on the midrib on the upper surface of the leaf and on the upper surface of the leaf axis.

Other differences include the fact that Angelica keiskei has thick leaves, releases a yellow sap when the stem is cut, and has pale yellowish-green flowers, while Angelica japonica does not have particularly thick leaves, has white flowers, and does not release a yellow sap when the stem is cut.

Incidentally, Angelica matsumurae, a variety of Angelica shikokiana, has hairless stems.

This allows you to distinguish between the three species, but be aware that if you are judging purely by shape, you will also need to distinguish them from other species such as Angelica dahurica, Rock ginseng, Angelica shikokiana, and Angelica acutiloba. For more detailed information, please refer to the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018) or Ohashi et al. (2017).

Are there any other similar species?

As mentioned above, many species of the Angelica genus grow wild in Japan.

For information on the differences between Nodake and Shishiudo, please see our separate article.

What's the difference between Angelica acutiloba and Angelica gigas? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Is the purple color of the flowers due to wasps?!

Both Angelica dahurica and Angelica pubescens belong to the Angelica genus of the Apiaceae family. They are medium to large perennial herbs with thick stems and broad leaves, and are similar in that their leaflets are large and rounded. However, upon closer observation, there are differences in their leaves, flowers, and fruits. However, since there are many species in the Angelica genus, careful distinction is necessary...

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What is the structure of a flower?

Like many other members of the Apiaceae family, the flowers form umbels.

After the stamens and petals have formed, they fall off, and the pistil develops. A structure common to the Apiaceae family (Shimizu, 2001) called the "columnar base" or "columnar base," which is a glossy structure that secretes nectar and is part of the pistil, develops. My photo shows the later stage.

This process, where the stamens appear first and then the pistils appear, is called "protandry," and it is observed in some species of the Apiaceae family, preventing self-pollination (Watanabe, 1999).

Angelica keiskei flowers from August to October. Its compound umbels lack involucral bracts, but have several involucral bracts. It bears pale yellow flowers and lacks sepals.

Angelica pubescens flowers from August to November. It bears numerous small white flowers in large umbel-shaped inflorescences. The stalks of the umbel-shaped inflorescences are irregularly shaped, ranging in length from 3 to 18 cm. There are no involucral bracts or involucral bracteoles. The petals are numbered 3 to 5, with two lobes at the tip, slightly curved inward, and sometimes tinged with yellow.

Japanese angelica tree (Hamaudo) blooms from April to June. Compound umbels emerge from the tips of its branches, bearing dense clusters of small white flowers. The involucral bracts at the base of the pedicels and the involucral bracts at the base of the pedicels are both elongated.

What is the structure of the fruit?

The fruit, like many species in the Apiaceae family, is a schizocarp. A schizocarp is a type of dehiscent fruit, consisting of multiple carpels. When mature, the number of schizocarps corresponds to the number of carpels, and the fruit splits open, separating from the central axis. This type of fruit is widely found in the Apiaceae family.

Common to all species in the Angelica genus, the fruit is flattened, hairless, and has a membranous, somewhat broad wing.

The fruit of Angelica keiskei is oblong, with relatively narrow wings. It consists of two flattened carpels joined together. There is one oil duct under each dorsal groove and four on the fused surface. The wing-like portion of the carpel is not as wide as that of Angelica japonica.

The fruit of Angelica pubescens is 7–9 (up to 11) mm long and 5–7 mm wide, with broad wings and consisting of two flattened segments joined together. The oil glands on the surface of the fruit are clearly visible.

The fruit of Angelica japonica is flattened and broadly oval, consisting of two flattened carpels joined together. The carpels are oblong, with broad, wing-like ridges on both sides, giving them a fan-like appearance.

References

Hayashi, Yasaka, Kadota, Yuichi, and Hirano, Takahisa. 2013. Yamakei Handy Illustrated Guide 1: Wildflowers (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 664pp. ISBN: 9784635070195

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Shimizu, Takemi. 2001. Illustrated Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Yasaka Shobo, Tokyo. xii, 323pp. ISBN: 9784896944792

Watanabe, Osamu. 1999. Illustrated Key to Major Apiaceae Plants in Hokkaido, Part 1: Large Species - Plants Identified by Leaves 2. Shiretoko Museum Research Report 20: 15-32. ISSN: 0387-8716, https://shiretoko-museum.jpn.org/media/shuppan/kempo/sm20_02.pdf

Solanum lyratum, Solanum sulphureum, Solanum holosteoides, and Solanum jasminoides all belong to the Solanaceae family and are four species that share the characteristic of being "climbing plants." The basic structure of their flowers and fruits is the same, so these four species are often confused. However, these four species have clear differences. Solanum jasminoides and Solanum sulphureum are completely different species. This can be determined by examining the hairs on the stem and the shape of the leaves. The flowers are sympetalous and have yellow, perforated anthers like a banana. The fruit is a berry. This article will explain the classification and morphology of climbing Solanum species.

What are Japanese honeysuckle, mountain dappled, round-leaved dappled, and crescent-leaf nightshade?

Solanum lyratum, also known as Japanese honeysuckle, is a climbing perennial herb that grows at the edges of forests and is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; as well as in Korea, China, and Southeast Asia (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Solanum japonense, also known as Yamahoroshi, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Korea and China, growing in forest edges and within forests (Kadota et al., 2013).

Solanum maximowiczii, also known as round-leaved holly, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of the southern Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, growing in evergreen broad-leaved forests and valleys at the foot of mountains (Ohashi et al., 2017).

Solanum laxum, also known as climbing nightshade, is a perennial vine distributed in southeastern Brazil, Argentina, and the La Plata River estuary in Uruguay, growing in Atlantic coastal forests, Norfolk Island forests, riparian forests, and open forest edges (Brazil Flora G., 2023). It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in both temperate and subtropical regions worldwide, including Japan, and has naturalized and become naturalized in places like Australia and New Zealand.

All four species belong to the Solanaceae family, specifically the Solanum genus, and are characterized by their "climbing" growth habit. Their basic flower and fruit structures are the same.

Regarding *Solanum lyratum*, *Solanum lyratum*, and *Solanum sarmentosum*, they can be said to belong to a similar group of wild species. They also share the characteristic of having corollas that sometimes curve backward.

Furthermore, the plant Solanum jasminoides is sometimes called "Yamahoroshi" in horticulture as an alternative name, making the two species easily confused. Distinguishing them based solely on their leaves seems difficult.

What are the differences between Solanum lyratum, Solanum sulphureum, Solanum holosteoides, and Solanum jasminoides?

However, these four species have clear differences. Solanum jasminoides and Solanum sarmentosum are also completely different species.

First, since Solanum lyratum, Solanum sulphureum, and Solanum holosteoides are wild species, and Solanum jasminoides is a cultivated species, it's safe to assume that Solanum jasminoides is not commonly found in the wild in Japan.

We will also consider morphological differences.

Firstly, in Solanum lyratum, the stem is densely covered with glandular hairs of varying lengths, whereas in Solanum sarmentosum, Solanum holosteoides, and Solanum jasminoides, the stem is either hairless or has only a few soft hairs.

Regarding the remaining three species, the differences are as follows: in Solanum sarmentosum and Solanum holosteoides, the corolla is deeply incised, the lobes sometimes curve backward, and the color is purple with a yellowish-green inner throat; in Solanum jasminoides, the corolla is shallowly incised, the lobes do not curve backward, and the color is entirely white to pale purple.

Distinguishing between Solanum sarmentosum and Solanum holosteoides is the most difficult, but in Solanum sarmentosum, the leaves are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, with a heart-shaped, rounded, or truncate base, and entire, wavy, or serrated margins, sometimes 3-5 lobed near the base, while in Solanum holosteoides, the leaves are elliptical or ovate-lanceolate, with a wedge-shaped base that flows into the petiole, and are entire and undivided.

There are many distinguishing features, but the shape of the base of the leaf blade is probably the easiest to identify. The Japanese name "Marubanohoroshi" (round-leaved holly) certainly describes a characteristic feature, but it's important to note that even Yamahoroshi can have entire, undivided margins.

Other differences include the fact that in Solanum sarmentosum, the upper surface of young leaves has distinct hairs and the inner surface of the flower throat is dark purple, while in Solanum sarmentosum, the upper surface of young leaves has scattered dot-like projections and the inner surface of the flower throat is green.

Are there any other similar species?

The Solanum genus includes many other species, but the number of climbing herbaceous plants is limited.

For those who want to know the difference between Solanum species with upright stems and those with woody stems, please see our other article.

What are the differences between eggplant and nightshade? What is the origin and evolution of eggplant? Why is nightshade disliked? Does its flower pollinate by vibration? Why are nightshade fruits poisonous?

Both eggplant (Nasu) and nightshade (Nightshade japonica) share the name "eggplant" and have similar flower shapes, so those unfamiliar with them might confuse them. However, eggplant and nightshade are completely different species. Eggplant is a cultivated plant that does not grow wild and has no thorns, while nightshade is a wild plant...

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What are the differences between *Tama coral* (winter coral) and *Himeta coral*? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Both Solanum sieboldii (winter coral) and Solanum nigrum belong to the Solanaceae family and are cultivated extensively for ornamental purposes because they produce attractive, round, red, ripe fruits (berries) in winter. However, in Japan, it is not always possible to properly distinguish between the two varieties, Solanum sieboldii and Solanum nigrum...

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What are the differences between *Solanum nigrum*, *Solanum sibiricum*, *Solanum nigrum*, and *Solanum nigrum*? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species!

Black nightshade, large black nightshade, American black nightshade, and glossy black nightshade all belong to the Solanaceae family and Solanum genus. They are very commonly seen in urban areas, and can even be found in green spaces in large cities. They are characterized by their round, black, ripening fruits, but the four species are very similar...

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What is the structure of a flower?

Flowers of the Solanum genus are all fused-petal flowers, and this is true for all four species. In particular, the stamens have a distinctive feature common to all species in the Solanum genus.

This is because the anthers, which are the pollen-containing parts of the stamen, are large and conspicuous, and these anthers taper to a point with a small hole. Such anthers are called "porous anthers" (Shimizu, 2001).

Japanese honeysuckle (Solanum lyratum) blooms from August to September. Numerous flowers are borne in cymose inflorescences. The corolla is white, about 1 cm in diameter, deeply divided into five lobes, with the lobes curving backward. There are five stamens, with thick, short filaments. The anthers are yellow.

Solanum sarmentosum flowers from July to September. It bears sparsely branched cymose inflorescences with several flowers, originating from the opposite side of the leaves or partway up the stem. The calyx is saucer-shaped and has five lobes at the tip. The pedicels thicken slightly below the calyx. The corolla is pale purple, deeply five-lobed, and about 1 cm in diameter. Initially, it spreads flat, but later each lobe curves strongly backward. There are yellowish-green glands at the base of the lobes, and the inner surface of the throat is dark purple. There are five yellow stamens, clustered in the center of the flower and erect. The anthers are oblong, about 3 mm long, and surround the pistil.

Solanum sieboldii flowers from August to September. It produces sparsely branched cymose inflorescences from the middle of the stem or from the opposite side of the leaves. The calyx is saucer-shaped and shallowly 5-lobed. The corolla is pale purple, deeply 5-lobed at the tip, about 1 cm in diameter, with a yellowish-green inner surface of the throat, and the lobes strongly curve backward when open. The anthers are oblong, not tapering at the tip, and about 3 mm long.

Solanum jasminoides flowers from June to October. The inflorescence is terminal or laterally attached, over 5 cm long, and branches many times, although usually only 2-3 times, bearing up to 50 flowers, and is hairless. The calyx is 1-1.5 mm, conical to slightly flattened. The corolla is 1.8-2.2 cm in diameter, white or pale purple, star-shaped, and split about halfway down to the base, with lobes 7-9 x 5-6 mm, spreading out flat when in bloom. The anthers are 3.5-4 mm long and oval-shaped.

What is the structure of the fruit?

These four species, like other members of the Solanum genus, have berries.

The berries of the Japanese honeysuckle are spherical, about 8 mm in diameter, and ripen to a reddish color.

The berries of Solanum sarmentosum are spherical, 6-7 mm in diameter, and occasionally oval-shaped, ripening to red in the autumn. The seeds are approximately 2 mm in diameter.

The berries of Solanum sieboldii are spherical, turning red when ripe, and measuring 7-10 mm in diameter. The seeds are approximately 3 mm in diameter.

The berries of Solanum jasminoides are spherical, about 1 cm in diameter. When ripe, they turn dark purple, and the pericarp is thin and glossy. Each fruit contains 10 to 20 seeds, each about 3 x 2.5 mm, flattened, kidney-shaped, light brown, and has a surface with fine pores.

References

Brazil Flora G. 2023. Brazilian Flora 2020 project. Version 393.387. Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro. https://doi.org/10.15468/1mtkaw

Kadota, Y., Nagata, Y., & Azegami, N. 2013. Flowers Blooming in the Mountains (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 616pp. ISBN: 9784635070218

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Shimizu, Takemi. 2001. Illustrated Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Yasaka Shobo, Tokyo. xii, 323pp. ISBN: 9784896944792

Scutellaria indica, Scutellaria baicalensis, Scutellaria japonica, and Scutellaria japonica all belong to the genus Scutellaria in the family Lamiaceae. They are often confused in horticulture, and because they frequently grow in forest edges and on the forest floor, their large, swollen corollas are similar in shape, making them difficult to distinguish by observing only the flowers. While there are many species in the genus Scutellaria, these four species can be distinguished by comprehensively observing the inflorescence, stem hairs, and leaf shape. The flowers are characterized by a helmet-shaped corolla and a long corolla tube, and it is likely that bees such as bumblebees with long mouthparts are the primary visitors, although this has not been studied sufficiently. After flowering, the lip-shaped calyx enlarges, enclosing the fruit (schizocarp), and when ripe, the upper part falls off, scattering the fruit when it rains. This article will explain the classification, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of *Scutellaria indica*, *Scutellaria parvifolia*, *Scutellaria japonica*, and *Scutellaria longiseta*.

What are Tatsunamisou, Kobano Tatsunami, Okatatsunamisou, and Namikisou?

Scutellaria indica var. indica, also known as Tatsunamisou, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of Fukushima Prefecture), Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, China, and Indochina, growing in forest edges and grasslands on hillsides.

Scutellaria indica var. parvifolia, also known as velvet tatsunami or small tatsunamisou, is a perennial plant distributed throughout Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan. It grows along roadsides, in crevices in stone walls, and is also common along coastlines. It is widely cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Scutellaria brachyspica, also known as Okatatsunamisou, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of Fukushima Prefecture) and Shikoku in Japan, growing in forest floors and other areas on hillsides.

Scutellaria strigillosa, also known as Namikisou, is a perennial herb that grows in sandy areas along the coast and is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and northern Kyushu in Japan; the Korean Peninsula; China; Northeast China; Ussuri; Sakhalin; and the Kuril Islands.

Both belong to the genus Scutellaria in the Lamiaceae family and often grow at the edge or on the forest floor. Their large, swollen corollas are similar in shape, and it may be difficult to distinguish them by observing only the flowers. In particular, in horticulture, what is actually Scutellaria indica is sometimes called Scutellaria indica.

What are the differences between *Tatsunamisou*, *Kobano Tatsunami*, *Okata Tatsunamisou*, and *Namikisou*?

There are 18 known species of the genus *Scutellaria* in Japan, and it's impossible to cover them all here. However, I will list the distinguishing features of four commonly searched species. For those who want to know all the distinguishing features, I recommend referring to Ohashi et al. (2017) or the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018).

First, in *Scutellaria indica*, the flowers grow singly in the leaf axils (they do not form inflorescences), whereas in other species such as *Scutellaria indica*, *Scutellaria baicalensis*, and *Scutellaria japonica*, the flowers form terminal racemes.

Regarding the remaining three species, *Scutellaria indica* has short, downward-pointing hairs on its stems and prominent glandular dots on the underside of its leaves, while *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis* have prominent spreading hairs on their stems and inconspicuous glandular dots on the underside of their leaves. Additionally, the inflorescence of *Scutellaria indica* does not lengthen vertically, with the flowers clustered at roughly the same height, whereas there are differences in the height at which the flowers are located within the inflorescence of *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis*.

Regarding *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis*, *Scutellaria indica* has an upright stem that grows to 20-40 cm, leaves that are 10-25 mm long, and 7-14 pairs of lateral serrations, while *Scutellaria baicalensis* has a stem that creeps along the ground at the base, growing to 5-20 cm, leaves that are 5-15 mm long, and 3-7 pairs of lateral serrations.

Other differences between *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis* include the fact that *Scutellaria baicalensis* has more fine hairs on the corolla and pedicel, the corolla is bluish-purple (white in the cultivar *Scutellaria baicalensis* f. alba, and pale pink in *Scutellaria baicalensis* f. lilacina), and the intensity and shape of the markings on the central and lateral lobes of the lower lip vary, sometimes being almost absent. Regarding habitat, *Scutellaria baicalensis* tends to prefer coastal areas, but there are many escaped individuals from cultivation, so this alone is not sufficient for identification.

What is the structure of a flower?

The flower's structure is that of a "labiate flower," as it belongs to the mint family. A labiate flower is one in which the tip of the tubular corolla is divided into two parts, upper and lower, resembling lips.

In the genus Scutellaria, the calyx is lip-shaped and has both an upper and lower lip. Another distinctive structure is the presence of a "scutellum." The scutellum is a large projection attached to the upper lip of the calyx, which persists into the fruiting stage and serves to enclose the fruit.

Scutellaria indica blooms from May to June. It produces flower spikes 3 to 8 cm long at the tips of its stems, with the flowers clustered in one direction. The flowers are bluish-purple or pale reddish-purple, and rarely white, which is called white-flowered Scutellaria indica f. amagiensis. The corolla is lip-shaped, about 2 cm long, with a long tube that curves sharply at the base and stands upright. The upper lip is helmet-shaped and swollen. The lower lip is three-lobed and has purple spots on the inside. The calyx is lip-shaped, with a rounded bulge (scutellum) on the back of the upper lip. After flowering, the calyx lengthens slightly and closes its mouth.

Scutellaria indica blooms from May to June. It is almost identical to Scutellaria indica, but the corolla and pedicel have more fine hairs, the corolla is bluish-purple (white in the white-flowered variety Scutellaria indica f. alba, and pale pink in Scutellaria indica f. lilacina), and there are markings on the central and lateral lobes of the lower lip, but the intensity and shape of the markings vary and they may be almost absent.

Okatatsunamisou blooms from May to June. Its inflorescence is shorter than that of Tatsunamisou, with flowers clustered at the end of the stem. The flowers are about 2 cm long. The lower lip is folded, and the markings on the petals are faint, sometimes almost nonexistent. The calyx is divided into upper and lower lips, with a large, circular scutellum rising from the upper lip of the calyx. The corolla and calyx also have glandular dots and glandular hairs.

Namikisou (a type of orchid) blooms from June to September. The flowers grow in pairs at each node, leaning towards one direction, with one flower per leaf axil at the top. They are 1.8-2.2 cm long, bluish-purple, and bent at the base, growing almost upright. The calyx is 3 mm long when in bloom.

How does pollination occur? Bumblebees come!?

It is known that at least some species of the genus Scutellaria produce both open and closed flowers. In the case of Scutellaria indica, there are populations that produce both open and closed flowers, and populations that produce only closed flowers (Sun, 1999).

Cleistogamous flowers can self-pollinate by keeping their corollas closed, eliminating the need for cross-pollination by insects and enabling stable reproduction. However, they have the disadvantage of lacking genetic diversity.

In open flowers, pollination is carried out by insects. While it is unclear for *Scutellaria indica *, it has been found that in three species—*Scutellaria indica var. satokoae*, *Scutellaria indica var. parvifolia *, and *Scutellaria muramatsui* —the upper and lower lips of the corolla weakly absorb ultraviolet light to make them conspicuous to pollinating insects, while the edges of the corolla pores, i.e., the space between the upper and lower lips and the base of the lower lip, weakly reflect ultraviolet light (Naruhashi et al., 2004).

However, no studies on specific pollinating insects attracted by these characteristics could be found in mainland Japan. However, using Google Image Search, one blog shows a bumblebee (Bombus ignitus) visiting a flower (tonji, 2023). Also, although it does not contribute to pollination, another site shows a long-horned bee (Bombus nipponicus) inserting its mouthparts into the base of the corolla and stealing nectar (Fukuhara, 2025).

The mint family is generally closely associated with specific types of bees, and it seems likely that bumblebees, such as those found in the Scutellaria genus, would also visit plants of this genus, given the length of their flower tubes and the size of their corollas.

As an exception, *Scutellaria indica* is unique, characterized by its even more elongated, tubular white flowers than *Scutellaria indica*, and is thought to be pollinated by hawk moths, which likely have proboscises longer than those of bees (Abe, 2006). *Scutellaria indica* is considered to have a relatively long flower tube within its genus, and it has been suggested that it may have evolved after reaching the Ogasawara Islands (Abe, 2009).

What is the structure of the fruit?

All species in the genus Scutellaria have fruits that are divided into four segments. After flowering, the calyx remains, the lips of the upper and lower calyx close, and the scutellum develops to enclose the fruit (schizocarp). Some internet articles mistakenly refer to the calyx as the "fruit" and the fruit as the "seed," but this is incorrect.

In *Scutellaria indica*, when the fruit matures, the upper lip of the large, saucer-shaped calyx falls off, leaving the lower lip like a receptacle, exposing the four fruitlets. The fruitlets are small, chestnut to dark brown, oval-shaped, and about 1.2 to less than 1.5 mm in length, densely covered with small protrusions.

In *Scutellaria indica*, the fruit is almost identical to that of *Scutellaria indica*, but the length of the fruit segments is 1-1.2 mm.

In *Scutellaria indica*, when the fruit matures, the upper lip of the large, saucer-shaped calyx falls off, leaving the lower lip like a receptacle, exposing the four fruitlets. The fruitlets are about 2 mm long and densely covered with small protrusions.

In *Namikisou*, the upper lip of the calyx remains attached even after the fruit matures, continuing to enclose the four fruitlets. The fruitlets are approximately 1.25 mm in diameter, yellowish-brown, nearly spherical, and densely covered with small protrusions.

How were seeds dispersed? Were they relying on the power of raindrops?!

While *Scutellaria indica* is an exception, many species of the *Scutellaria* genus have saucer-shaped calyxes that expose the fruit on the upper side. This is thought to serve the purpose of dispersing the fruit by trapping raindrops on the calyx (Kobayashi, 2007). In other words, this is a form of "rain dispersal." This is a fairly uncommon method of seed dispersal in Japan and is likely to have an impact on its habitat.

References

Abe, T. 2006. Threatened pollination systems in native flora of the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands. Annals of Botany 98(2): 317-334. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcl117

Tetsuto Abe. 2009. Current status of pollination system disturbances in the Ogasawara Islands and their management strategies. Global Environment 14(1): 47-55. http://www.airies.or.jp/attach.php/6a6f75726e616c5f31342d316a706e/save/0/0/14_1-08.pdf

Tatsuhito Fukuhara. 2025, October 21. Various Pollination Methods. Fukuhara's Page (Plant Morphology, Biological Image Collection, etc.). https://staff.fukuoka-edu.ac.jp/fukuhara/keitai/6-3.html

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kobayashi, Masaaki. 2007. From Flower to Seed: The Science of Seed Dispersal. National Rural Education Association, Tokyo. 247pp. ISBN: 9784881371251

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Naruhashi, N., Sawanomukai, T., Wakasugi, T., & Iwatsubo, Y. 2004. A new variety of Scutellaria (Lamiaceae) from Japan. The Journal of Phytogeography and Toxonomy 52(2): 127-135. http://hdl.handle.net/2297/48678

Sun, M. 1999. Cleistogamy in Scutellaria indica (Labiatae): effective mating system and population genetic structure. Molecular Ecology 8(8): 1285-1295. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.1999.00691.x

tonji. April 26, 2023. A rare bee, the black bumblebee. It's the season in Miyazaki! https://www.nekoton.com/entry/2023/04/26/000000

Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) is the most common species in Japan, frequently found both in the wild and in gardens. Several closely related species are known, and four species—Japanese honeysuckle, Lonicera japonica, Lonicera caerulea, and Lonicera japonica—can be reliably distinguished by comprehensively examining their tree shape, flowers, fruits, and leaf forms. Some members of the honeysuckle family have distinctive lip-shaped flowers, but do you know what role this shape plays? It is thought to have evolved to appeal to hawk moths, which are active from dusk to nocturnal. However, recent research is showing that it also appeals to bees. On the other hand, Lonicera japonica is a closely related species, but it has a completely different shape from Japanese honeysuckle. This is thought to be the result of adaptation to hummingbirds endemic to the Americas. This article will explain the classification, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of honeysuckle species.

Members of the honeysuckle genus are frequently seen both in the wild and in gardens.

Many species of the honeysuckle genus (Lonicera japonica) in the family Caprifoliaceae are found in Japan.

Lonicera japonica, also known as honeysuckle, is a semi-evergreen climbing woody plant distributed throughout East Asia, including Japan. It grows in mountainous areas, roadsides, and is also cultivated (Mogi et al., 2003).

Lonicera affinis, also known as beach honeysuckle, is a semi-evergreen climbing woody plant distributed from Honshu (Kii Peninsula and Chugoku region) to Okinawa and China, growing in forest edges near the coast.

Lonicera sempervirens, also known as "piercing honeysuckle," is an evergreen tree-like vine native to North America that is cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant in Japan.

Lonicera morrowii, also known as honeysuckle (Lonicera morrowii), is a deciduous shrub distributed in southwestern Hokkaido, the northeastern part of Honshu, the Sea of Japan side, Shikoku, and Ulleungdo Island in South Korea. It grows in mountainous and coastal areas and is sometimes cultivated. The Japanese name, written with the kanji characters for "gold and silver tree," comes from the fact that the corolla is initially white, later turning yellow, and the mix of white and yellow flowers on a single branch resembles gold and silver. However, this characteristic is also shared with honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica).

While some species in the Lonicera genus, like the Lonicera gracilipes, have funnel-shaped corollas, many others have lip-shaped corollas, which can be a bit confusing.

What are the differences between honeysuckle, beach honeysuckle, dwarf honeysuckle, and golden honeysuckle?

Here, we will focus on explaining how to distinguish between the most frequently searched species: honeysuckle, beach honeysuckle, dwarf honeysuckle, and golden honeysuckle.

First, these species can be broadly classified into climbing woody plants and upright shrubs (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). Climbing woody plants, as the name suggests, are species that grow by twining around other plants or objects. Upright shrubs stand on their own, just like normal plants.

The climbing woody plants are honeysuckle, hollyhock, and beach holly, while the upright shrub is the golden holly.

Other distinguishing features include the fact that the corolla of the honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) is similar to that of the Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and the beach honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica var. japonica), but the anthers of the stamens are considerably longer. Also, the upper surface of the leaves of the honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica var. japonica) is particularly wrinkled.

Of the three climbing woody plants, honeysuckle and Japanese honeysuckle have flowers that change from white to yellow, berries that ripen to black, and opposite leaves directly below the inflorescence that are not fused. In contrast, tufted honeysuckle has reddish-orange flowers, berries that ripen to red, and opposite leaves directly below the inflorescence that are fused. Furthermore, the corolla of tufted honeysuckle is tubular, which is completely different from the other two species.

The remaining differences between honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and beach linden (Lonicera caerulea) are that honeysuckle has leaf-like, ovate bracts and hairy stems, while beach linden has lanceolate, non-leaf-like bracts and hairless stems. In terms of habitat, honeysuckle grows in mountainous areas and roadsides from the southern tip of Hokkaido to Kyushu, while beach linden grows exclusively in forest edges near the coast from Honshu (Kii Peninsula and Chugoku region) to Okinawa.

Incidentally, it has several alternative names: Suikazura (standard Japanese name) = Honeysuckle (English name) = Nintō (Chinese name).

Also, please note that the standard Japanese name for this plant is *Lonicera gracilis*, which is the same as *Lonicera japonica*.

In addition to these, there are other upright shrubs such as Lonicera gracilis, Lonicera caerulea, Lonicera japonica, and Lonicera sempervirens, but we will omit them here. The name "gourd" in species, including Lonicera gracilis, comes from the fact that two ripe red fruits fuse together to form a gourd shape. This is a good point of identification, but it is important to note that Lonicera gracilis species, which have funnel-shaped, drooping corollas, also have a similar characteristic.

What is the role of the honeysuckle's slender, white, sweet-smelling flowers?

The flowers of the honeysuckle genus are quite polymorphic and belong to closely related groups, yet they exhibit a variety of characteristics.

Broadly speaking, there are those with lip-shaped corollas, like honeysuckle and Lonicera species; those with tubular corollas, like Lonicera japonica; and those with funnel-shaped corollas, like Lonicera gracilipes.

Each has its own evolutionary history, but here we will focus on the flowers of honeysuckle and celery and explain their ecology.

Honeysuckle flowers bloom from May to July. The corollas are initially white, later turning yellow, and simultaneously, white and yellow flowers bloom together on a single branch. They have slender flower tubes and emit a sweet fragrance. The long stamens and pistils, which are easily visible from a distance, may also be a reason for their popularity.

However, it seems quite different from the typical shape of a flower. What role do these kinds of flowers play?

In fact, these characteristics are widely found in flowers whose pollination is carried by nocturnal hawk moths with long mouths, and many studies have shown that hawk moths do indeed visit honeysuckle (Tanaka & Hirano, 2000; Miyake & Yahara, 1998).

The long stamens and pistils, and the T-shaped anthers of the stamens, are thought to be designed to ensure that the nectar can reliably attach to the bodies of hawk moths, which have long mouthparts and try to suck nectar from a distance (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000).

Furthermore, being white and having a sweet scent are common characteristics of flowers that hawk moths prefer. These characteristics of flowers that appeal to specific animals are called "pollination syndrome."

The ecological reason why honeysuckle flowers bloom in the evening

However, this flower's role wasn't limited to just that. It's known that this flower blooms in the evening. If it were only for hawk moths, wouldn't nighttime be sufficient? Why does it bloom in the evening as well?

Research shows that when flowers bloom in the evening, diurnal bees also come to visit. Apparently, bees are more efficient at carrying pollen, so in terms of pollination efficiency, bees are preferred (Miyake & Yahara, 1998). In other words, by simply changing the time of blooming, without the trouble of altering the flower shape which was originally suited to hawk moths, the plant attracts both bees and hawk moths and maximizes pollination.

Furthermore, the morphological feature of the flower, with its upper and lower notches and bilateral symmetry, is thought to be designed to provide bees with a foothold for the stamens and pistils (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000). It could be said that this flower is adapted to both bees and hawk moths.

What is the role of the red, drooping flowers of the honeysuckle?

On the other hand, the shape of the flowers of Lonicera japonica is quite different. It blooms from May to October. The corolla is 4-5 cm long, slender and tubular, with five short lobes at the tip. It is bright red in color, with a yellow or orange interior. It has five stamens and one pistil, both protruding. The flowers usually hang downwards. What role does this flower play?

In its native North America, this is explained in detail (Hayden, 2014). According to this, it is an adaptation to a bird called the hummingbird, which is found only on the American continent. Specifically, the red-throated hummingbird is mentioned.

Due to differences in color vision, only a limited number of insect species can see the color red, while birds are strongly attracted to it.

Furthermore, in contrast to honeysuckle, it has almost no scent. It seems that hummingbirds have stopped secreting this scent because they have excellent eyesight but a poor sense of smell.

The flowers secrete abundant nectar because hummingbirds love it. It is thought that the drooping flowers are a way to prevent the nectar from being diluted by rain.

The tubular shape, which is clearly longer than that of honeysuckle, is thought to be a way to counter the length of a hummingbird's tongue.

The hummingbirds, such as the Red-throated Hummingbird, that are lured in this way stick their beaks into the flowers, and the pollen from the stamens touches their collars, cheeks, and chins, which then transfer to the pistils of other plants, completing the pollination process.

The honeysuckle, which targets hawk moths and bees, and the celery honeysuckle, which targets hummingbirds native to North America, represent fascinating examples of contrasting evolutionary outcomes.

The fruit is a berry and the seeds are dispersed by birds.

The fruits of the honeysuckle genus are berries and are generally thought to be dispersed by birds.

However, as mentioned earlier, some varieties ripen to black, while others, particularly the berries, ripen to red. Is there a reason for this difference? It seems this hasn't been sufficiently researched yet, but I hope to learn more in the future.

References

Hayden, WJ 2014. Humming Birds: Pollination Facts and Fancy. Bulletin of the Virginia Native Plant Society 33(2): 1,5,8. ISSN: 1085-9632, https://scholarship.richmond.edu/biology-faculty-publications/137/

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Miyake, T., & Yahara, T. 1998. Why does the flower of Lonicera japonica open at dusk?. Canadian Journal of Botany 76(10): 1806-1811. ISSN: 1916-2804, https://doi.org/10.1139/b98-119

Mogi, T., Takahashi, H., Katsuyama, T., & Ishii, E. 2003. Flowers Blooming on Trees: Sympetalous Flowers, Monocotyledons, Gymnosperms. Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 719pp. ISBN: 9784635070058

Tanaka, Hajime & Hirano, Takahisa. 2000. The Face of Flowers: Wisdom for Bearing Fruit. Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 191pp. ISBN: 9784635063043

Source

This article is a significantly expanded version of one included in the following book.

Goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus umbellata (Elaeagnus umbellata) share the common characteristic of producing delicious red berries in the summer. However, their botanical characteristics are quite different. The most reliable way to distinguish between goji berries and Elaeagnus umbellata is by their leaves and flowers, although there are also differences in the fruit stalks. Goji berries can be eaten raw, but they are described as having a "fishy smell, a very bland taste, and a slight bitterness," and may not be very tasty unless processed. On the other hand, Elaeagnus umbellata, particularly Elaeagnus macrophylla, is considered delicious. Goji berries are primarily eaten as dried fruit, and the leaves and buds are also edible and used in traditional Chinese medicine. Goji berry flowers, perhaps because they belong to the nightshade family, are conspicuously purple, but their shape is not particularly specialized, resembling a typical flower, and are likely mainly visited by small bees. In nature, the fruit is used by birds and raccoons. This article will explain the classification, uses, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus multiflora (Elaeagnus multiflora).

A delicious red berry that ripens in the summer.

Goji berry (Lycium chinense) is a shrub distributed throughout Japan, the Korean Peninsula, China, and Taiwan (Hirano, 1997). It is cultivated and sometimes naturalized in South Asia (Nepal), Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia), and Europe (Paisooksantivatana, 1994), and has recently spread to North America (Shirataka, 2018). It inhabits plains with wasteland such as embankments and ditches, and sandy areas near water (Tanaka, 1995; Ohashi et al., 2017). It is cultivated for its edible fruits and leaves.

Botanically, "gumi" (茱萸) is a general term for the genus Elaeagnus and does not refer to a specific plant species. However, in horticulture, it generally refers to Elaeagnus multiflora var. hortensis, or Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea, a cultivar of Elaeagnus multiflora with large fruits (Funakoshi, 2017). Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea is also called "bikkuri gumi" (surprise gumi) in horticulture.

Elaeagnus multiflora is a deciduous shrub distributed in Hokkaido (Oshima Peninsula) and Honshu (the Sea of Japan side north of central Japan, and central Kinki region), growing in forest edges and within woodlands (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is cultivated for its edible fruit.

From a distance, both goji berries and jujubes appear to be delicious-looking red berries, and their leaves are oblong to oval-shaped, so someone unfamiliar with them might not be able to distinguish them just by looking at the fruit.

The most reliable way to distinguish between goji berries and Elaeagnus umbellata is by their leaves and flowers; the fruits differ in their pedicels.

However, goji berries belong to the nightshade family, while jujubes belong to the Elaeagnaceae family; their classifications are completely different and are the result of convergent evolution. There are considerable differences in their leaves and stems.

First, there is a striking difference in the leaves. The leaves of the goji berry are soft, papery, and hairless, while those of the Chinese olive have silvery-white or brownish scale-like or stellate hairs, and from a distance, countless tiny dots are visible, giving them a sparkling appearance.

Regarding the stems, goji berries (Lycium chinense) have ridges (horns) and thorns. Chinese jack-in-the-valley (Elaeagnus umbellata) has no ridges and no thorns. However, be aware that other species in the Elaeagnus genus may have thorns.

The flowers are completely different; in the wolfberry, the corolla is pale purple and broadly funnel-shaped, whereas in this species, the flower is pale yellow and the calyx tube, which replaces the corolla, is cylindrical.

The most difficult part is the fruit, and first of all, there is a difference in the fruiting period. Goji berries fruit from August to November, while angelica tree berries fruit from June to July. However, depending on the region and weather, there may be some overlap.

Another difference is that the fruit stalk, the elongated organ that attaches the fruit to the plant, is thick and round at the fruit end in goji berries before abruptly narrowing, whereas in angelica trees it remains consistently thin.

Based on the above, you can definitely distinguish them. Judging them by the shape or color of the fruit would be quite difficult.

If you want to learn how to distinguish between different types of gummy candies, please see our other article.

What are the differences between autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive? Can they be eaten raw? Is the "sparkle" on the leaves to prevent drying? What insects visit the flowers? Are the sweet and sour fruits very popular in nature?

Autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive are all members of the Elaeagnus genus in the Elaeagnaceae family. They can be found in various locations throughout Japan, including rivers, coastlines, and forests. Their leaves are covered in shimmering stellate or scale-like hairs, and they produce pale yellow flowers consisting only of a cylindrical calyx tube, lacking petals.

ecological-information.com

While goji berries can be eaten raw, is eating them raw not so great?

The goji berry is best known for its red berries, and nowadays, it's most familiar to humans as a dried fruit. While it can be eaten fresh, some say it has a "fishy smell, a very bland taste, and a slight bitterness," so it's not very tasty.

In addition, the young shoots in spring and the leaves from summer to autumn are boiled and rinsed in water to be used in salads or blanched dishes, while the raw berries are thoroughly washed and used in tempura, stir-fries, or soups. The fully ripened berries are thoroughly washed and steeped in white liquor to make fruit wine. The leaves and roots are finely chopped and dried to make goji berry tea.

The fruit, root bark, and leaves are also used in traditional Chinese medicine (Shirataka, 2018).

Besides being eaten fresh, the Japanese laurel (Elaeagnus multiflora) is used in jams and other products, as well as to make fruit wine (Elaeagnus multiflora wine). There are various opinions on the taste of eating it fresh, with some saying it is "sweet and sour with a lingering astringency," and others saying it is "almost astringent and sweet enough to be eaten raw." However, the cultivated variety, Elaeagnus macrophylla, is generally considered delicious. Other species of Elaeagnus multiflora, however, are often very sour or bitter and would be difficult to eat without processing.

Are bees primarily attracted to flowers of the nightshade family that have completely different anther shapes?

The flowers of the goji berry are just as vibrant as the fruit, pale purple, and funnel-shaped (Ohashi et al., 2017). They bloom from July to November, from summer to autumn. Although they belong to the same Solanaceae family as eggplants, the shape of their stamens is completely different, with the anthers of the typical form protruding from the outside of the flower.

According to overseas records, this flower is visited by bees, flies, and ants (Paisooksantivatana, 1994), and in Japan, honeybees (Howes, 2015) and red-winged bumblebees (Ikutome, 1992) have also been confirmed. A Google image search also confirmed that a species of bumblebee and a yellow-breasted bumblebee have visited the flower in Japan. There does not seem to be any research yet that has investigated the overall proportion of these species, but it is thought that in Japan, there are many bees that can extend their mouthparts into the funnel-shaped opening.

While pollination in the Solanum genus, including eggplant, is limited to bees capable of vibration pollination, goji berries seem to be able to accommodate a variety of bees. The reason why this method of pollination works is not yet fully understood, but it may be because they have evolved in an environment where there are few insects that steal nectar from outside the flower without carrying pollen, such as bumblebees. However, there are also photographs of bumblebees visiting, so the actual reason remains unclear and research is insufficient.

What are the differences between eggplant and nightshade? What is the origin and evolution of eggplant? Why is nightshade disliked? Does its flower pollinate by vibration? Why are nightshade fruits poisonous?

Both eggplant (Nasu) and nightshade (Nightshade japonica) share the name "eggplant" and have similar flower shapes, so those unfamiliar with them might confuse them. However, eggplant and nightshade are completely different species. Eggplant is a cultivated plant that does not grow wild and has no thorns, while nightshade is a wild plant...

ecological-information.com

Do birds and mammals eat goji berries?

What animals in the wild eat goji berries, which can only be enjoyed after being processed by humans?

While this point has not been studied sufficiently, the presence of goji berry seeds carried by birds under persimmon trees suggests that dispersal by birds is a possibility (Takatsuki, 2021).

However, there are also reports that it is being used by raccoons (Takatsuki, 2018).

It's possible that both methods are used, but since it grows in sandy areas near water, bird dispersal might be the primary method. A Chinese study also treats it as bird dispersal (Li et al., 2006).

However, it seems that it is not known which types of birds prefer it.

References

Funakoshi, Ryoji. 2017. 100 Fruit Trees You Can Grow and Eat Yourself: From Familiar Fruits to Popular Berries. Shufunotomo Co., Ltd., Tokyo. 167pp. ISBN: 9784074272013

Hirano, Takahisa. 1997. Tree Guidebook: Understanding the Characteristics and Uses of Trees Found in Gardens, Parks, and Wildlife. Nagaoka Shoten, Tokyo. 319pp. ISBN: 9784522215579

Howes, FN 2015. Plants and Beekeeping. Andesite Press, California. 264pp. ISBN: 9781296522247

Ikutome, Shuichi. 1992. Environment and bee fauna of urban nature parks: Survey results in Shiroyama Park, Kagoshima City. Appendix: Revised Catalogue of bees in mainland Kagoshima Prefecture. Bulletin of Kagoshima Women's Junior College 27: 99-135. ISSN: 0286-8970, http://id.nii.ac.jp/1121/00000877/

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Paisooksantivatana, Y. 1994. Lycium chinense. In: JS Siemonsma, & K. Piluek (Eds.), Plant Resources in South-East Asia (No. 8 Vegetables, pp. 198-199). Pudoc. ISBN: 9789022010587, http://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Lycium_chinense_(PROSEA)

Shirataki, Yoshiaki. 2018. Wildflowers of the Mountains and Fields: Edible and Medicinal Properties of Common Wild Plants - Lycium chinense Miller (Solanaceae family). New Food Industry 60(9): 52-54. ISSN: 0547-0277, https://www.i-repository.net/il/user_contents/02/G0000284repository/pdf/JOS-05470277-60(9)-52.pdf

Takatsuki, Shigeki. 2018. Characteristics of fruits used by raccoons—a review. Mammalian Science 58(2): 237-246. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.58.237

Takatsuki, Seiki. 2021. Seed dispersal by birds to persimmon trees on the Azabu University campus. Azabu University Journal 32: 1-9. http://id.nii.ac.jp/1112/00005374/

Tanaka, Koji. 1995. Herbal Health Methods: Effectiveness and Usage at a Glance. Kodansha, Tokyo. 123pp. ISBN: 9784061953727

Source

This article is a significantly expanded version of the one included in the following book.

Tricyrtis macropoda, Tricyrtis hirsuta, Tricyrtis japonica, and Tricyrtis taiwanensis are popular species of toad lilies that grow in Japanese forests and are also widely cultivated for ornamental purposes. However, because there are few differences in their leaves and their flowers are similar, misidentification is common even when using Google Image Search. The main difference lies in the inflorescence, which can be broadly divided into two groups. After that, they can be distinguished by carefully observing the degree of opening of the perianth segments and the hairs on the stem. These toad lilies also have several interesting ecological features. Their flowers are protandrous, meaning that the sexes are separated over time to prevent self-pollination. The flowers, which have evolved to resemble fountains, seem to be adapted to attract a specific insect, and various studies have shown that this is the bumblebee. The shape and size of the flowers are adjusted so that pollination can only occur by the bumblebee. This characteristic is found to be common to many species. However, Tricyrtis macropoda has a slightly different appearance, with its flowers slanting downwards. The spots are concentrated on the part that curves diagonally downwards, making it conspicuous, and pollination by bumblebees is possible, but the reason why this is the case is not well understood at present. The fruit is a capsule and is dispersed by wind. This article will explain the classification, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of major species in the genus *Tricyrtis*.

It is a species endemic to Japan and inhabits mountainous areas.

Toad lily (Tricyrtis hirta) is a species endemic to Japan, distributed in southwestern Hokkaido, west of the Kanto region in Honshu, south of Fukui Prefecture, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It is a perennial herb that grows in semi-shaded areas in mountainous regions (Ohashi et al., 2017). In Japan, it is also cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Tricyrtis macropoda, also known as mountain toad lily, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido (southwestern part), Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Korea, and China, growing in forests, forest edges, and grasslands.

Tricyrtis affinis, also known as mountain toad lily, is a perennial herb that grows in mountainous and wild areas, distributed from southwestern Hokkaido to Kyushu.

Taiwanese toad lily (Tricyrtis formosana) is a perennial plant distributed in Iriomote Island (Okinawa Prefecture) and Taiwan, growing in forests, thickets, shady areas, and roadsides. In Japan, it is also cultivated for ornamental purposes.

All of these species belong to the genus Tricyrtis in the family Liliaceae. Wild specimens can be found in forests, and they are also popular as ornamental plants. They are very difficult to distinguish because they all have ovate-oblong to narrowly oblong leaves that are covered in hairs. The flowers are white or pink with reddish-purple spots, and the stems are hairy. Although there are differences in flower shape and color when examined closely, many have been cultivated and improved as ornamental varieties, and misidentification is common even on top-ranking websites on the internet. Misidentification is also frequent in Google Image Search. Unfortunately, this does not mean that we are treating living things correctly.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #073] What are the species of the Liliaceae family? Photo list

Liliaceae are perennial herbs. They have bulbs or rhizomes. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, sometimes clustered at the base of the stem. Flowers are solitary at the stem tip or leaf axils, or borne in diverse racemes or umbels. They bear bisexual flowers. The perianth segments are separate, with outer and inner perianth segments...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences between the common toad lily (Tricyrtis macropoda), the Japanese var. japonica), and the Taiwanese toad lily (Tricyrtis macropoda var. japonica)?

Here, I will thoroughly describe the methods of distinction and correct any misunderstandings.

First, by looking at the inflorescence, they can be broadly divided into two groups.

While *Tricyrtis macropoda* and *Tricyrtis hirsuta* have only one to two (or up to three) flowers each in the leaf axils or stem tips, *Tricyrtis macropoda* and *Tricyrtis formosanus* have three or more flowers, forming a corymb inflorescence. *Tricyrtis macropoda*, in particular, often has only one flower (solo).

The difference between *Tricyrtis macropoda* and *Tricyrtis hirsuta* is that in *Tricyrtis macropoda*, the stem is covered with many spreading to upward-pointing hairs, and the perianth segments always open diagonally upwards (oblique-opening), while in *Tricyrtis hirsuta*, the stem has downward-pointing hairs, and the perianth segments open diagonally upwards and parallel (oblique-opening to flat-opening).

The difference between Tricyrtis macropoda and Tricyrtis taiwanensis is that in Tricyrtis macropoda, the perianth segments are about 1.5 cm long, white with reddish-purple spots, and open from parallel to diagonally downward (flat to inverted), and the stem has sparse, short, stiff, downward-pointing hairs like thorns. In contrast, in Tricyrtis taiwanensis, the perianth segments are about 3 cm long, pink with reddish-purple spots, and open diagonally upward (oblique), and the stem has sparse, spreading hairs.

The above points should help distinguish between them, but the inflorescence is poorly developed, which might cause confusion between Tricyrtis macropoda and Tricyrtis japonica. Therefore, I will also describe the differences between these two species.

Aside from the inflorescence, the differences between *Tricyrtis macropoda* and *Tricyrtis hirsuta* are that in *Tricyrtis macropoda*, the perianth segments are parallel when the flower is just beginning to bloom, and open diagonally downwards as it matures, and there are no purple spots on the inner surface near the base of the perianth segments. In contrast, in *Tricyrtis hirsuta*, the perianth segments are basically parallel and do not open diagonally downwards to an extreme degree, and there are purple spots on the inner surface near the base of the perianth segments. In addition, in *Tricyrtis macropoda* and *Tricyrtis formosanus*, the inner surface near the base of the perianth segments is yellowish-orange.

I haven't been able to find any differences between *Tricyrtis hirsuta* and *Tricyrtis formosanus* other than the inflorescence. However, as a general trend in horticultural varieties, *Tricyrtis hirsuta* seems to have purple perianth segments with smaller spots, while *Tricyrtis formosanus* has reddish-purple perianth segments with larger spots. However, there are many differences between varieties, and the flower colors of wild *Tricyrtis formosanus* populations also vary, so I think distinguishing them by the inflorescence is the most accurate method.

While there are several other rare species of the *Tricyrtis* genus in Japan with different flower shapes and colors, these are quite different and will be omitted from this article.

What are the shapes of the flowers in the *Tricyrtis* genus?

The basic structure of the *Tricyrtis* genus is common to all species. The perianth consists of six segments: three inner segments and three outer segments, which open radially and evenly, ranging from diagonally downwards to diagonally upwards.

The tips of the six stamens and the six-part pistil extend outwards from the center of the flower like a fountain, with their tips pointing downwards and curving backward (Tanaka, 2009).

The flowering period for the toad lily is from August to September. Two to three flowers bloom upwards in the leaf axils. The perianth segments spread obliquely, and the inside is white to pale reddish-purple with many purple spots, and there are yellow-orange spots at the base.

The flowering period for Tricyrtis macropoda is from July to September. It has many flowers, three or more in number, forming a corymbose inflorescence. The perianth segments are flat to retractable, and the inside is white with many pale reddish-purple spots. There are no spots at the base, but instead, pale reddish-purple spots are concentrated on the ridges that curve diagonally downwards.

The flowering period for Tricyrtis macropoda is from August to October. The flowers typically bloom in clusters of one or two in the leaf axils, facing upwards. The perianth segments are oblique to flat, with many dark purple spots on a white background on the inside, and purple spots at the base.

The Taiwanese toad lily (Tricyrtis formosana) blooms from September to October. It produces corymbose inflorescences with three or more flowers. The perianth segments spread obliquely, with a bluish-purple-white interior and darker edges, dark purple spots on the surface, and yellow-orange spots at the base. However, this description pertains to wild populations.

The Japanese name "Hototogisu" is said to originate from its resemblance to the coloring of the chest of the cuckoo bird.

The cuckoo bird has a white chest and belly with black horizontal stripes, and while the toad lily plant does sometimes appear to have stripes like the bird, it is basically composed of spots, so personally I find the name a little confusing... However, forcing an association with the plant might make it easier to remember.

Do species of the *Tricyrtis* genus differentiate sexes based on time of day?

While it is unclear for Tricyrtis macropoda, Tricyrtis japonica, Tricyrtis yamaensis, and Tricyrtis macropoda exhibit the characteristic of "protandry" (Tanaka, 1997).

This is because, after the stamens are initially established, the pistil grows beyond the stamens, so that in the first half it is dedicated to dispersing pollen to other individuals as a male, and in the second half it is dedicated to receiving pollen from other individuals as a female (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000).

This can be seen as separating genders based on time.

This method is thought to prevent self-pollination, which occurs when the same insect visits multiple of the same flower at the same time, and to ensure the stable production of seeds carrying the genes of other individuals.

Since artificial self-pollination is possible (Takahashi, 1989), self-pollination may be used as a last resort.

The flowers were almost exclusively for bumblebees!?

Wouldn't you agree that the highly three-dimensional flowers of the *Tricyrtis* genus would limit the number of insects that can effectively pollinate them?

In fact, several studies are being conducted in Japan to determine what kinds of insects visit these sites.

The results showed that the only recorded instances of the cuckoo flower being visited by a bumblebee with a long tongue, * Bombus diversus diversus* (Miyamoto, 1961; Kato et al., 1990).

In addition, in research on the Japanese toad lily (Takahashi, 1994), bees such as Eucera sp. (a species of the genus Eucera) and Lasioglossum sp. (a species of the genus Lasioglossum) also visited the flowers, but they rarely produced pollen. In fact, the majority of bees that produced pollen and contributed to pollination were bumblebees (Bombus ignitus) (Takahashi, 1994).

In research on *Tricyrtis macropoda*, insects from multiple taxonomic groups, including the families Apidae, Syrphidae, Syrphidae, and Papilionidae, visited the flowers, but the vast majority of those that actually contributed to pollination were *Bombus scoparius* (Takahashi, 1989). However, a small number of * Amegilla * sp. also contributed.

All of these species were pollinated primarily by bumblebees.

In fact, it is believed that many other species of the Tricyrtis genus, such as Tricyrtis latifolia, Tricyrtis nana, and Tricyrtis ohsumiensis, are also pollinated by bumblebees (Takahashi, 1978; Takahashi, 1987; 1989). Furthermore, Tricyrtis flava and Tricyrtis takakuma are also pollinated by bumblebees of the genus Caranax.

Were the flowers adjusted so that they would fit only bees of a certain size?

Nectar is secreted in a round urn beneath the perianth segments, and yellow or purple spots at the base of the perianth segments act as nectar guides. When bumblebees are attracted to these guides and climb onto the perianth segments, extending their mouthparts downwards to drink the nectar, the six stamens or the six-part pistil touch their backs, and pollination occurs (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000).

Pollen sticks to your back because it's harder to reach with your legs, reducing the risk of it being brushed off.

In this way, insects whose backs touch the stamens and pistils need to be of a certain size; if they are too small, they won't be tall enough, and if they are too large, they won't be able to get in at all. It seems that the genus *Tricyrtis* is specialized in pollination by bumblebees (or other bees) of a certain size. In the *Tricyrtis* species introduced, the target was the tiger bumblebee.

Why do the same insects visit different flower shapes?

However, there are considerable differences in the perianth segments of the *Tricyrtis* genus.

In particular, the perianth segments of the Japanese toad lily (Tricyrtis macropoda) open diagonally downwards, and the base of the perianth segments is colorless. This is an exceptional flower within the Tricyrtis genus. Is there any problem with this shape?

In the case of *Tricyrtis macropoda*, instead of having color at the base, pale reddish-purple spots are concentrated on the ridges (the parts that curve diagonally downwards). Therefore, bumblebees can spot the pale reddish-purple spots from a distance, and since the places where they can land are narrow, it is easy to find the nectar glands, so it is considered not to be a problem (Takahashi, 1994).

But there's a more fundamental question: Why did the Japanese toad lily need to change the shape of its flower if the same insects were visiting it?

Unfortunately, this has not yet been studied and is not well understood.

It's possible that there are other insects that visit besides those discovered in the research, and the degree to which the opening is adjusted based on subtle differences in their presence.

Also, if the insects that visit are the same, it's possible that they discover the flowers from different angles.

For example, in the case of Tricyrtis macropoda and Tricyrtis japonica, the flowers grow in locations where they can be found directly above by bumblebees, so the perianth segments bloom diagonally upwards or parallel to the ground. In contrast, Tricyrtis macropoda grows in locations where it can be found from the side, so the flowers bloom diagonally downwards.

However, this remains purely speculative and is an unresolved issue.

The fruit is a capsule and is dispersed by wind.

As is common with the genus *Tricyrtis*, the fruit is a capsule. It is elongated, triangular in shape with a pointed tip, and when ripe, the tip splits into three small sections. It contains numerous seeds, which are small, flattened, and ovate to circular in shape.

Seeds of the genus *Tricyrtis* are thought to be dispersed by wind (Suzuki, 2000).

References

Kato, M., Kakutani, T., Inoue, T., & Itino, T. 1990. Insect-flower relationship in the primary beech forest of Ashu, Kyoto: an overview of the flowering phenology and the seasonal pattern of insect visits. Contributions from the Biological Laboratory, Kyoto University 27(4): 309-376. ISSN: 0452-9987,
http://hdl.handle.net/10091/13206

Miyamoto, S. 1961. Flower-visiting behavior of bumblebees. Ecological studies of Japanese flower bees. XIX. Journal of the Japanese Society of Applied Entomology and Zoology 5(1): 28-39. ISSN: 0021-4914, https://doi.org/10.1303/jjaez.5.28

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Suzuki, Kojiro. 2000. Differences in photoresponsiveness during seed germination of two species of the genus *Tricyrtis* and *Scilla scilloides* (Liliaceae). Bulletin of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture 45(3): 210-216. https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2010621308

Takahashi, Hiroshi. 1987. Distribution and phytogeographical issues of the genus *Tricyrtis*. Plant Taxonomy, Geography 38: 123-132. ISSN: 0001-6799, https://doi.org/10.18942/bunruichiri.KJ00002992245

Takahashi, H. 1987. A Comparative Floral and Pollination Biology of Tricyrtis flava Maxim., T. nana Yatabe and T. ohsumiensis Masamune (Liliaceae). The Botanical Magazine 100: 185-203. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02488323

Takahashi, H. 1989. The Floral Biology of Tricyrtis affinis Makino (Liliaceae). Plant Species Biology 4(1) 61-68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-1984.1989.tb00048.x, https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/10484907

Takahashi, H. 1994. Floral biology of Tricyrtis macropoda Miq.(Liliaceae). Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 45(1): 33-40. ISSN: 0001-6799, https://doi.org/10.18942/bunruichiri.KJ00001079028

Tanaka, Hajime. 1997. Ecology Guide: Nature Created by Flowers and Insects. Hoikusha, Tokyo. 197pp. ISBN: 9784586312054

Tanaka, Hajime. 2009. Handbook of Flowers Attracting Insects. Bun-ichi Sogo Shuppan, Tokyo. 80pp. ISBN: 9784829901397

Tanaka, Hajime & Hirano, Takahisa. 2000. The Face of Flowers: Wisdom for Bearing Fruit. Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 191pp. ISBN: 9784635063043

Source

This article is a significantly expanded version of a piece originally published in the following book.