Both Ipomoea purpurea and Ipomoea purpurea belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family and are introduced species that have naturalized in Japan. They share the characteristics of small corollas and a star shape when viewed from above. They can be seen in urban areas, but they may be confused with each other. However, in addition to the easily recognizable difference of flower color, the way the inflorescence stalks appear can also be used to distinguish them. If it is still difficult to distinguish them, it is necessary to examine the finer details. This article will explain the classification and morphology of Ipomoea genus species other than small, red-flowered varieties.

What are morning glories and star morning glories?

Ipomoea lacunosa, also known as the dwarf morning glory, is an annual plant native to the eastern United States that has naturalized worldwide. In Japan, it is said to have arrived mixed in with imported grains after World War II and grows along roadsides south of the Kanto region.

Ipomoea triloba, also known as the star morning glory, is an annual plant native to Central and northern South America that has naturalized worldwide. In Japan, it is believed to have been introduced after World War II and grows along roadsides south of the Kanto region.

Both belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family and are introduced species in Japan that have naturalized and are common annual plants found along roadsides. In addition to the common characteristics of the Ipomoea genus, such as having a single style and a spherical, unbranched stigma, these two species also share the characteristics of having hairy leaves that are shallowly divided into 3 to 5 lobes, and having funnel-shaped corollas of fused petals that are less than 2 cm in diameter and star-shaped when viewed from above.

Therefore, it may be difficult to distinguish between them.

What are the differences between morning glory and star morning glory?

Distinguishing between the two is relatively easy in typical cases.

In contrast to the common morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), the flowers are white, the peduncle is much shorter than the petiole that emerges from the base, and there are usually only 1 to 3 flowers per inflorescence. In contrast, the star morning glory has pale pink flowers on the outside and a reddish-purple center, and the peduncle is longer than the petiole that emerges from the base, producing 3 to 10 flowers per inflorescence.

The term "peduncle" might be confusing, but it refers to the slender part that holds the inflorescence (a cluster of flowers) together. In the case of the star morning glory, you can simply understand that this peduncle is long and protrudes upwards, and it has a large number of flowers.

I believe these two points are sufficient to distinguish them in most cases, but some plant guides point out that "it can be difficult to determine the flower color or the number of flowers on a single stem, so caution is required when identifying them."

In such cases, the distinguishing features are that the flower stalks of Ipomoea tricolor are densely covered with wart-like protrusions and the seeds are thickened, while those of Ipomoea purpurea are scattered on the flower stalks and the seeds are not thickened and are triangular in shape.

I don't think it's usually necessary to check this much.

Are there any other similar types?

The sweet potato genus includes many species, but this particular variety, with its hairy leaves and small, white or purple flowers, is unknown in Japan. Although it shares the same genus as the morning glory (asagao), it is not a variety but a completely different species.

For information on other species of the Ipomoea genus, please see the separate article.

What are the differences between morning glories, round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar varieties! The origins of Japanese morning glories are shrouded in mystery!?

Morning glories (Ipomoea nil), round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories all belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. Among the varieties with "morning glory" in their name, they are particularly popular for their large corolla diameter (over 3 cm) and are widely cultivated as ornamental plants. While they are very popular, there is considerable individual variation between varieties...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences between Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! What are the structures of their flowers and fruits?

Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit all belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. These climbing annuals, native to tropical America, were cultivated as ornamental plants in Japan and have since become naturalized...

ecological-information.com

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Morning glories (Ipomoea nil), round-leaved morning glories (Ipomoea purpurea), wild morning glories (Ipomoea purpurea), and American morning glories (Ipomoea purpurea var. japonica) all belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. Among the varieties with "morning glory" in their name, they are large, with corollas exceeding 3 cm in diameter, and are widely cultivated for ornamental purposes. Although they are very popular, there is considerable individual variation among the varieties, and it is possible that the four species, which are actually different at the "species" level and cannot interbreed , are often confused. The most accurate way to distinguish the four species is by looking at the shape of the calyx. After that, examine the shape of the flowers and leaves as well to make a comprehensive judgment. The origin of Japanese morning glories is shrouded in mystery, but it is believed that morning glories, originally from the Americas, were introduced to Japan during the Nara period, and have been confirmed to exist in Japan even before the European rediscovery of the Americas. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the Ipomoea genus.

What are morning glories, round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories?

Morning glory (Ipomoea nil) is sometimes considered to be native to the Himalayas in Japan, but globally, it is generally accepted that it is native to Central and South America (RBG Kew, 2024). It is cultivated all over the world, and in Japan, it is believed to have been introduced via Tang China during the Nara period, and was already cultivated for medicinal purposes as a laxative. Since the Edo period, it has become a popular ornamental annual plant. However, its historical background is shrouded in mystery, as will be discussed later. It can also escape cultivation and become naturalized in alluvial plains in various regions.

Ipomoea purpurea, also known as round-leaved morning glory, is an annual plant native to tropical America. It is believed to have been introduced to Japan during the Edo period as an ornamental plant and subsequently naturalized. It is cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Ipomoea indica, also known as wild morning glory, is native to Central and South America. In the Ryukyu Islands, where it has naturalized and grows wild, it is a perennial plant that grows in coastal grasslands and cliffs. Outside the Ryukyu Islands, it has recently become widely cultivated in Japan for greening walls and for ornamental purposes.

American morning glory (Ipomoea hederacea var. hederacea) is native to tropical America and was introduced to Japan as an ornamental plant at the end of the Edo period. It was later recognized as naturalized after World War II (Shimizu et al., 2001). It can now be seen along roadsides in various locations.

All of these belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family, and among the varieties with "morning glory" in their name, they are large, with corollas measuring 3 cm or more in diameter, and are widely cultivated for ornamental purposes.

In addition to producing beautiful, round corollas, the color of the corollas changes from red to blue depending on the soil environment, and they are easy to cultivate, making them particularly popular in Japan. The boom in popularity is thought to have started during the Edo period.

Morning glories are an inseparable part of Japanese culture, as even elementary school science classes sometimes include a curriculum on growing them. However, due to the extensive development of horticultural varieties, the four species mentioned above, which are biologically distinct at the "species" level, are sometimes confused.

Please keep in mind that morning glories, round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories are biologically completely different species, meaning they are so different that they do not normally interbreed.

What are the differences between morning glories, round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories?

Specifically, the four species can be distinguished as follows (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, morning glories and American morning glories can be broadly distinguished by the fact that their calyx lobes are long and slender at the tip and their leaves are thin, while round-leaved morning glories and wild morning glories have calyx lobes that are somewhat closer to an acute triangle with shorter tips and thicker leaves.

The thickness of the leaves can be a little difficult to judge, but you can easily tell by looking at the calyx, which is the green, leaf-like structure at the back of the corolla.

Regarding morning glories and American morning glories, the main difference is that in morning glories, the tips of the calyx lobes are mostly linear and long, with little to no recurve, and the corolla is large, about 5-8 cm in diameter. In contrast, in American morning glories, the tips of the calyx lobes are tubular and recurved, and the corolla is somewhat smaller, about 3-4 cm in diameter.

Furthermore, while American morning glories can have corollas ranging from purple to crimson, they are usually a uniformly bright sky blue. In contrast, Japanese morning glories (Ipomoea nil) do not have a fixed color, ranging from dark blue to crimson, and some varieties may have variegated patterns due to selective breeding.

Regarding Ipomoea purpurea and Ipomoea nil, the differences are that in Ipomoea purpurea, the inflorescence stalk is usually longer than the petiole, the flowers are 5-8 cm in diameter, the fruit is pendulous, the leaves are ovate-cordate and undivided, and have scattered short hairs on the upper surface, while in Ipomoea nil, the inflorescence stalk is usually shorter than the petiole, the flowers are 8-12 cm in diameter, the fruit is upturned, the leaves are ovate-cordate and sometimes shallowly 3-lobed, and have sparse hairs.

There are quite a few distinguishing features, but for practical purposes, it's sufficient to understand that if the upper surface of the leaves is covered in many hairs, it's Ipomoea nil (round-leaved morning glory), and if not, it's Ipomoea purpurea (field morning glory). The flowers of Ipomoea purpurea are clearly larger.

As the name suggests, all the leaves of the round-leaved morning glory are round and do not divide, but it is important to note that even in the wild morning glory, there are round, undivided leaves mixed in with the divided leaves.

As mentioned above, morning glories, round-leaved morning glories, and wild morning glories can be distinguished by the shape of their calyx lobes, but it may be difficult to tell them apart if this part is not visible. In this case, there is no definitive way to distinguish them, but morning glories have many lobed leaves (leaves with notches), and the "cicada leaf" is the most common, although there are various shapes depending on the variety.

Are there any other similar species?

American morning glory has a variety called Ipomoea hederacea var. integriuscula. This variety is almost identical to the American morning glory, but as the name suggests, its leaves are entire, round, and undivided.

The sweet potato genus includes many other species, but most have small corollas, and we will omit the differences here. Please see the separate article for more details.

What are the differences between morning glories (Ipomoea nil) and star morning glories (Ipomoea purpurea)? We'll explain how to distinguish between these similar species!

Both Ipomoea purpurea and Ipomoea purpurea belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family and are introduced species that have naturalized in Japan. They share the characteristics of small corollas and a star shape when viewed from above. They can be seen in urban areas, but they may be confused with each other. However, there is an easy-to-understand difference in the color of the flowers...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences between Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! What are the structures of their flowers and fruits?

Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit all belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. These climbing annuals, native to tropical America, were cultivated as ornamental plants in Japan and have since become naturalized...

ecological-information.com

Convolvulus, such as Calystegia pubescens, belongs to the same Convolvulaceae family as morning glories, which may cause some people to confuse them.

However, morning glories typically have pink corollas, and a key difference is that the calyx of the corolla is enclosed in leaf-like structures called bracts or bract leaves.

Please see the separate article for information on the differences between species in the Convolvulus genus.

What are the differences between morning glory, small morning glory, beach morning glory, and European morning glory? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Morning glory, small morning glory, beach morning glory, and European morning glory are all climbing perennial plants belonging to the Convolvulaceae family. They are relatively small compared to other members of the Convolvulaceae family and are easy to find. Morning glory and small morning glory, in particular, twine around street trees and fences even in urban areas, blooming in countless numbers...

ecological-information.com

The origins of morning glories in Japan are shrouded in mystery!?

As mentioned above, the generally accepted theory worldwide is that morning glories are native to Central and South America. In Japan, some literature states that they are native to the Himalayas (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association , 2018), but Chinese and British literature also state that they are native to the Americas (RBG Kew, 2024).

The reason for this is that, excluding those escaped through cultivation, most species of the Ipomoea genus are found in the Americas, which is the region where the greatest diversity has occurred.

Considering this, it might seem that after Europeans discovered the Americas, morning glories spread across Eurasia and eventually reached Japan. In other words, it was part of the "Columbian Exchange."

However, that's not the case. In fact, illustrations appear in a Buddhist scripture manuscript called "Heike Nokyo," which was compiled in 1164 (Heian period) (Austin et al., 2001).

Why is this?

Unfortunately, the reason is not entirely clear. The following hypotheses have been proposed.

1. It became feral through long-distance seed dispersal by animals.
2. It was introduced via Asia and China before Columbus's rediscovery of the Americas.
3. The plant resembling a morning glory depicted in the "Heike Nokyo " is a different species; the real morning glory was introduced to Japan via Europe after Columbus.

Recent papers increasingly point out that (2) is the case (Nitta & Hoshino, 2019).

However, it might seem strange that plants from the Americas arrived in Japan before the Columbus Exchange. In fact, the details of how this happened are not well understood.

My theory is that the Dené–Yeniseian languages are known to be a language group spanning the Americas and Eurasia. If this is true, it would mean that Native Americans (Indians) who spoke Proto-Dene–Yeniseian returned to Eurasia, which could be evidence of a relationship between the Americas and Eurasia before Columbus (Sicoli & Holton, 2014; Wilson, 2023).

Other linguistic research suggests that the "Jie" people, a small tribe that existed in Shanxi in northern China during the 4th century (the Sixteen Kingdoms period) and was one of the Five Barbarians, may be the "Ket people," who have roots in Native American cultures (Vovin et al., 2016). The Ket language spoken by the Ket people belongs to the Yenisei language family, which also suggests a connection between the Americas and Eurasia.

References

Austin, DF, Kitajima, K., Yoneda, Y., & Qian, L. 2001. A putative tropical American plant, Ipomoea nil (Convolvulaceae), in pre-Columbian Japanese art. Economic Botany 55(4): 515-527. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4256486

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

RBG Kew. 2024. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Nitasaka, Eiji & Hoshino, Atsushi. 2019. Diverse mutant resources and high-precision genomic information of morning glory. Frontiers in Plant Science 10: 169-178. ISSN: 2432-9819, https://doi.org/10.24480/bsj-review.10c8.00168

Shimizu, K., Morita, H., & Hirota, S. 2001. Illustrated Guide to Naturalized Plants of Japan: 600 Species of Plant Invaders (Revised). National Rural Education Association, Tokyo. 553pp. ISBN: 9784881370858

Sicoli, MA, & Holton, G. 2014. Linguistic phylogenies support back-migration from Beringia to Asia. PloS One 9(3): e91722. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091722

Vovin, A., Vajda, E., & De La Vaissiere, E. 2016. Who were the *Kjet and What Language did they Speak?. Journal Asiatique 304(1): 125-144. https://doi.org/10.2143/JA.304.1.3146838

Wilson, JA 2023. Late Holocene Technology Words in Proto-Athabaskan: Implications for Dene-Yeniseian Culture History. Humans 3(3): 177-192. https://doi.org/10.3390/humans3030015

Morning glory, small morning glory, beach morning glory, and European morning glory are all climbing perennial herbs belonging to the Convolvulaceae family. They are relatively small compared to other members of the Convolvulaceae family and are easy to find. Morning glory and small morning glory, in particular, are very common plants in urban areas, often seen twining around street trees and fences, blooming in countless numbers. However, these flowers are similar and some people may have trouble distinguishing them. They can be distinguished by observing the bracts and leaves. However, it is important to note that hybrids exist between morning glory and small morning glory. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genera Convolvulus and European morning glory.

What are morning glory, small morning glory, beach morning glory, and European morning glory?

The morning glory (Calystegia pubescens) is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Korea and China, growing in sunny grasslands and roadsides (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Calystegia hederacea, also known as the small morning glory, is a climbing perennial plant distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in Southeast Asia, growing in sunny grasslands and roadsides.

Beach morning glory (Calystegia soldanella) is a climbing perennial plant that grows in sandy areas along the coast and is widely distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Asia, Europe, the west coast of the Americas, Australia, and the Pacific Islands.

Convolvulus arvensis, also known as the European morning glory, is widely distributed across Eurasia (Europe and Asia) and North Africa (RBG Kew, 2024). In Japan, it became naturalized in various locations after World War II and is a climbing perennial plant that grows along roadsides.

Both are climbing perennial herbs belonging to the Convolvulaceae family, and are relatively small compared to other members of the Convolvulaceae family, making them easy to find. In particular, bindweed and small bindweed are very common plants, often seen twining around street trees and fences in urban areas, with countless flowers in bloom. These two species reproduce vegetatively through rhizomes, resulting in high propagation capacity (Fushimi, 2011).

As the name "Hirugao" (daytime glory) suggests, a major similarity to the "Asagao" (morning glory) is that they bloom during the day.

Morphologically, like many plants in the Convolvulaceae family, it has funnel-shaped fused petal flowers, and also shares the characteristic of having a single style with a bifurcated stigma. Importantly, it also has bracts or bract leaves at the base of the flower.

However, some people may not know how to distinguish between these four types.

What are the differences between morning glory, small morning glory, beach morning glory, and European morning glory?

These four species can be broadly divided into two groups (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

While morning glory, small morning glory, and beach morning glory belong to the genus Convolvulus, European morning glory belongs to the genus Convolvulus.

Therefore, there are significant differences in form.

Specifically, in morning glory, small morning glory, and beach morning glory, the bracts are large and there are two of them at the base of a single flower, enclosing the calyx, whereas in European morning glory, the bracts are small and there are two of them much lower down on a single flower.

Another difference is that while morning glory, small morning glory, and beach morning glory usually have corollas that are at least partially pink, European morning glory usually has white corollas.

However, it's important to note that there are rare varieties of each species with white flowers, such as *Convolvulus erythrosora* f. albiflora, *Convolvulus sakuraii* f. sakuraii, and *Convolvulus humilis* f. albiflora. There are also varieties of *Convolvulus humilis* that have a pinkish tint.

These characteristics should help distinguish it from morning glory.

Regarding the remaining three species, the main difference is that while morning glory and small morning glory have thin, lanceolate or triangular leaves, beach morning glory has thick, kidney-shaped leaves.

This is because beach morning glory has thickened leaves to withstand drought and high salinity on the coast (Hesp, 1991; Hagino et al., 2008; Fushimi, 2011).

While morning glory and small morning glory are quite similar, morning glory has less developed lateral leaf lobes, flowers 5-8 cm in diameter, and no wings at the top of the pedicel, whereas small morning glory has triangular leaves that are usually acute, with lateral lobes that spread laterally and sometimes split into two, flowers 3-5 cm in diameter, and small, curved wings at the top of the pedicel.

The term "lateral leaf lobes" might be difficult to understand, but essentially it means that while morning glory (Ipomoea nil) has only three pointed parts, bindweed (Calystegia virginiana) has five. However, there is variation among bindweed leaves, and some may only have three pointed parts, so it's best to check several leaves.

The bracts of Corydalis are more pointed in Corydalis than in Corydalis, so this point is also helpful to consider.

Are there any other similar species?

Another species in the genus Calystegia , Calystegia sepium, is also known. It has almost the same characteristics as the common morning glory, but its leaves are triangular-lanceolate with acute tips, and the corolla tube is slightly swollen above the bracts (in the common morning glory, the leaves are triangular or narrowly triangular-lanceolate with obtuse tips, and the corolla tube is not swollen above the bracts). This species is extremely similar to the common morning glory, so it is highly likely that they are being confused.

Also, note that there is a hybrid of morning glory and common morning glory called Calystegia hederacea x C. pubescens. This hybrid exhibits intermediate characteristics between the two species and is difficult to distinguish, but if the flowers are small and lack lateral lobes, you should suspect this hybrid.

The genus Convolvulus includes a species called Convolvulus cneorum, which is sometimes cultivated in gardens. Its leaves are narrow and have an unusual shape for the Convolvulaceae family, so it's unlikely to be confused with Convolvulus.

There are many other species in the Convolvulaceae family that also have "hirugao" (morning glory) in their name, but there are so many of them, and they are quite far apart in terms of classification, so we will omit them here.

References

Hagino, Kaori; Yamada, Satoshi; Yamanaka, Norikazu; Uozumi, Yasuyuki; Fujiyama, Hideyasu. 2008. Effects of salt on the growth of *Calystegia soldanella*, a plant native to sand dunes. Abstracts of the Japanese Society of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 54: 105. ISSN: 0288-5840, https://doi.org/10.20710/dohikouen.54.0_105_1

Hesp, PA 1991. Ecological processes and plant adaptations on coastal dunes. Journal of Arid Environments 21(2): 165-191. ISSN: 0140-1963, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1963(18)30681-5

Fushimi, Akihide. 2011. Morning Glory (Calystegia). Grass and Greenery 3: 38-44. ISSN: 2185-8977, https://doi.org/10.24463/iuws.3.0_38

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

RBG Kew. 2024. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit all belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. These are climbing annuals native to tropical America, and in Japan, they have become naturalized after being cultivated as ornamental plants. While distinguishing them is relatively easy, it may be difficult if you are unfamiliar with all four species. To understand the differences between these four species, it is essential to examine the leaves. Therefore, be sure to record the leaves. The flowers are funnel-shaped, fused petals, similar to morning glories, as is typical of the Convolvulaceae family. The fruit is a capsule, common to all species in the Ipomoea genus. This article will explain the classification and morphology of Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit.

What are Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit?

Ipomoea quamoclit, also known as morning glory, is a climbing annual plant native to tropical America. In Japan, it has been cultivated for ornamental purposes for a long time, and wild specimens can also be found (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). Compared to Ipomoea quamoclit, it is much less commonly seen in the wild, and records of escaped cultivation are rare.

Ipomoea x multifida, also known as "Momijirukou" (Japanese maple vine), is a horticultural plant obtained by crossing Ipomoea quamoclit and Ipomoea quamoclit, and like Ipomoea quamoclit, it is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant.

Ipomoea coccinea, also known as round-leaved crimson quince, is a climbing annual plant native to tropical America. Records indicate it was introduced to Japan during the Edo period. It is a naturalized plant, particularly common in warmer regions, and is also known as a tonic weed in fields.

Ipomoea hederifolia, also known as ivy-leaved red vine, is an annual climbing plant native to tropical America. It has naturalized in tropical to warm temperate regions worldwide, and the first recorded instance in Japan was in 1998 when it was collected in Koike Higashihara, Kanagawa Prefecture.

All of these plants belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. They are climbing annuals native to tropical America and are cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes, sometimes escaping cultivation and becoming naturalized. They all share the characteristic of having small corollas, less than 2 cm in diameter, and a bright red color, which is often why they are popular as ornamental plants. They also share the common Ipomoea genus features of having a single style and a spherical, unbranched stigma.

While the distinction is relatively easy, it might be difficult if you don't recognize all four types.

In particular, *Rumex rotundifolia* is often sold as "Ipomoea quamoclit" in horticulture, so it's highly likely that the two are being confused.

Furthermore, since Ilex crenata is very similar to Ilex rotunda, it is highly likely that they are being confused.

What are the differences between Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, Ipomoea quamoclit, and Ipomoea quamoclit?

To understand the differences between these four species, it's essential to examine their leaves.

First, they can be broadly classified based on the difference that Ipomoea quamoclit and Ipomoea quamoclit have deeply lobed leaves, while Ipomoea quamoclit and Ipomoea quamoclit have entire or shallowly three-lobed leaves.

Because the leaves of Ipomoea quamoclit and Ipomoea quamoclit have very fine incisions, if you carefully examine the leaves, you are unlikely to mistake them for the other two species.

One difference between Ipomoea quamoclit and Ipomoea quamoclit is that Ipomoea quamoclit has pinnately lobed leaves, while Ipomoea quamoclit has palmately lobed leaves.

In other words, in Ipomoea quamoclit, the leaves grow outwards from a narrow central leaf, resembling a feather, while in Ipomoea quamoclit, the leaves grow outwards radially from the petiole, resembling the palm of a hand. You should be able to see the difference if you observe carefully.

The difference between Ipomoea quamoclit and Ipomoea purpurea is that in Ipomoea quamoclit, all the leaves are entire or have a pair of corners on either side, and the seeds are black with scattered very short hairs, while in Ipomoea purpurea, the lower leaves of the stem are entire, but the upper leaves are shallowly three-lobed, and the seeds are mottled with dark brown and brown and densely covered with silvery-white downy hairs.

These two species are a little difficult to distinguish, but it's especially important to carefully record the upper part of the leaves. There are also differences in the flowers. In Ipomoea quamoclit, the center of the outer part of the corolla and the inside of the tube are yellow, while in Ipomoea quamoclit, the inside of the tube is yellow, but the center of the outer part of the corolla is red. So, be sure to check when the flowers are in bloom.

Are there any other similar types?

The sweet potato genus includes many species, but no species with bright red corollas are known.

For information on other species in the Ipomoea genus, please see our separate article.

What are the differences between morning glories, round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar varieties! The origins of Japanese morning glories are shrouded in mystery!?

Morning glories (Ipomoea nil), round-leaved morning glories, wild morning glories, and American morning glories all belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family. Among the varieties with "morning glory" in their name, they are particularly popular for their large corolla diameter (over 3 cm) and are widely cultivated as ornamental plants. While they are very popular, there is considerable individual variation between varieties...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences between morning glories (Ipomoea nil) and star morning glories (Ipomoea purpurea)? We'll explain how to distinguish between these similar species!

Both Ipomoea purpurea and Ipomoea purpurea belong to the Ipomoea genus of the Convolvulaceae family and are introduced species that have naturalized in Japan. They share the characteristics of small corollas and a star shape when viewed from above. They can be seen in urban areas, but they may be confused with each other. However, there is an easy-to-understand difference in the color of the flowers...

ecological-information.com

What is the structure of a flower?

The flowers, typical of the Ipomoea genus in the Convolvulaceae family, are funnel-shaped, fused-petal flowers similar to morning glories. The most distinctive feature of all four species is their red color.

Ipomoea quamoclit blooms from August to October. The flowers grow in clusters of one or two in the leaf axils, and are funnel-shaped with a long tube about 2 cm in diameter and 3-4 cm long, with long pedicels. The flowers are usually deep red in color. When viewed from above, the corolla appears star-shaped.

Ipomoea quamoclit blooms from August to October. Each cymose inflorescence bears 2 to 8 flowers. The pedicels are 5 to 15 mm long, erect, and the flowers face upwards. The corolla is vermilion red, with a long, funnel-shaped (trumpet-shaped) tube about 3.5 cm long, and a pentagonal tip about 2 cm in diameter. Both the stamens and pistil protrude from the corolla. The calyx is 5-lobed and slender, pointed at the tip, and 3 to 3.5 mm long.

The flowering period of Ivy 'Harukou' in Japan is unknown. The flowers form either a cluster of several flowers or a solitary terminal inflorescence. The sepals are oblong to elliptic, 1.5–3 mm long, with obtuse to pointed tips, and have fleshy awns at the subterminal ends, 1.6–6 mm long, on the outside, and are glossy. The corolla is red to reddish-yellow, 2.5–4.5 cm long.

What is the structure of the fruit?

The fruit, common to all plants in the Ipomoea genus, is a capsule. A capsule consists of multiple carpels, and the pericarp is usually dry. It splits open to release the seeds.

The capsule of the morning glory plant is oval-shaped, about 8 mm long, and contains four seeds. The seeds are about 5 mm long.

The capsule of *Ipomoea quamoclit* is 6-8 mm wide, contains 4 seeds, and the fruit stalk curves downward. The seeds are 3-4 mm long, black to dark brown, and covered with fine hairs. The fruit is oval, about 8 mm long, and contains 4 seeds. The seeds are about 5 mm long.

The capsules of *Ilex crenata* are subglobose, 6-8 mm long. The seeds are dark brown or black and spherical.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Angelica keiskei, Angelica pubescens, and Angelica japonica all belong to the Angelica genus of the Apiaceae family and are medium to large perennial herbs with thick stems and broad leaves. The structure of their leaves, flowers, and fruits is very similar, which is characteristic of the Apiaceae family. Furthermore, the swollen, sac-like base of the petiole and the flattened fruit are typical features of this group. However, they can be distinguished by checking the amount of hair on the leaves and the presence or absence of involucral bracts. The flowers, which are composed of umbels, are small and undergo sex change. The fruit is a schizocarp, flattened, and has a membranous, somewhat broad wing. This article will explain the classification and morphology of Angelica keiskei, Angelica pubescens, and Angelica japonica.

What are Ashitaba, Shishiudo, and Hamaudo?

Angelica keiskei, also known as Ashitaba or Shii-gusa, is a perennial herb that grows along the coast and is distributed in Honshu (southern Kanto region, Izu Islands, Tokai region, Kii Peninsula) and the Ogasawara Islands of Japan (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018; Ohashi et al., 2017).

Angelica pubescens var. pubescens, also known as wild angelica, is a perennial herb distributed throughout Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, growing in forest edges and grasslands throughout the region except for alluvial plains.

Angelica japonica, also known as beach angelica, is a perennial herb that grows along the coast and is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, as well as in Korea (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018; Hayashi et al., 2013).

Both are medium to large perennial herbs belonging to the Angelica genus of the Apiaceae family, characterized by thick stems and broad leaves. The leaf, flower, and fruit structures, which are typical of the Apiaceae family, are all very similar.

All species in the genus Angelica share the common trait of having flattened, hairless fruits with somewhat broad, membranous wings. Furthermore, the three species mentioned above are particularly similar in that the stalks of their large umbel inflorescences are covered with short hairs or hair-like projections, either entirely or internally, and the base of the petiole is swollen and sac-like. Therefore, identification can sometimes be difficult.

What are the differences between Ashitaba, Shishiudo, and Hamaudo?

There are 23 species of Angelica native to Japan, and it's impossible to cover all of them here, but let's consider the three species mentioned earlier.

First, Angelica pubescens lacks involucral bracts and has many curled fine hairs on the veins of the underside of the leaves, whereas Angelica keiskei and Angelica japonica have involucral bracts and the underside of the leaves is hairless.

The term "involucral bracts" may be unfamiliar, but they are thin, leaf-like green structures that grow at the base of the pedicel (the slender part connecting the flower to the plant body), and they can be found in some species of the Apiaceae family. In Angelica keiskei and Angelica japonica, you can see thin, green, leaf-like structures mixed in with the flowers.

Regarding Angelica keiskei and Angelica japonica, the main difference is that Angelica keiskei has almost no hairs on the midrib on the upper surface of the leaf and on the upper surface of the leaf axis, while Angelica japonica has dense short hairs on the midrib on the upper surface of the leaf and on the upper surface of the leaf axis.

Other differences include the fact that Angelica keiskei has thick leaves, releases a yellow sap when the stem is cut, and has pale yellowish-green flowers, while Angelica japonica does not have particularly thick leaves, has white flowers, and does not release a yellow sap when the stem is cut.

Incidentally, Angelica matsumurae, a variety of Angelica shikokiana, has hairless stems.

This allows you to distinguish between the three species, but be aware that if you are judging purely by shape, you will also need to distinguish them from other species such as Angelica dahurica, Rock ginseng, Angelica shikokiana, and Angelica acutiloba. For more detailed information, please refer to the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018) or Ohashi et al. (2017).

Are there any other similar species?

As mentioned above, many species of the Angelica genus grow wild in Japan.

For information on the differences between Nodake and Shishiudo, please see our separate article.

What's the difference between Angelica acutiloba and Angelica gigas? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Is the purple color of the flowers due to wasps?!

Both Angelica dahurica and Angelica pubescens belong to the Angelica genus of the Apiaceae family. They are medium to large perennial herbs with thick stems and broad leaves, and are similar in that their leaflets are large and rounded. However, upon closer observation, there are differences in their leaves, flowers, and fruits. However, since there are many species in the Angelica genus, careful distinction is necessary...

ecological-information.com

What is the structure of a flower?

Like many other members of the Apiaceae family, the flowers form umbels.

After the stamens and petals have formed, they fall off, and the pistil develops. A structure common to the Apiaceae family (Shimizu, 2001) called the "columnar base" or "columnar base," which is a glossy structure that secretes nectar and is part of the pistil, develops. My photo shows the later stage.

This process, where the stamens appear first and then the pistils appear, is called "protandry," and it is observed in some species of the Apiaceae family, preventing self-pollination (Watanabe, 1999).

Angelica keiskei flowers from August to October. Its compound umbels lack involucral bracts, but have several involucral bracts. It bears pale yellow flowers and lacks sepals.

Angelica pubescens flowers from August to November. It bears numerous small white flowers in large umbel-shaped inflorescences. The stalks of the umbel-shaped inflorescences are irregularly shaped, ranging in length from 3 to 18 cm. There are no involucral bracts or involucral bracteoles. The petals are numbered 3 to 5, with two lobes at the tip, slightly curved inward, and sometimes tinged with yellow.

Japanese angelica tree (Hamaudo) blooms from April to June. Compound umbels emerge from the tips of its branches, bearing dense clusters of small white flowers. The involucral bracts at the base of the pedicels and the involucral bracts at the base of the pedicels are both elongated.

What is the structure of the fruit?

The fruit, like many species in the Apiaceae family, is a schizocarp. A schizocarp is a type of dehiscent fruit, consisting of multiple carpels. When mature, the number of schizocarps corresponds to the number of carpels, and the fruit splits open, separating from the central axis. This type of fruit is widely found in the Apiaceae family.

Common to all species in the Angelica genus, the fruit is flattened, hairless, and has a membranous, somewhat broad wing.

The fruit of Angelica keiskei is oblong, with relatively narrow wings. It consists of two flattened carpels joined together. There is one oil duct under each dorsal groove and four on the fused surface. The wing-like portion of the carpel is not as wide as that of Angelica japonica.

The fruit of Angelica pubescens is 7–9 (up to 11) mm long and 5–7 mm wide, with broad wings and consisting of two flattened segments joined together. The oil glands on the surface of the fruit are clearly visible.

The fruit of Angelica japonica is flattened and broadly oval, consisting of two flattened carpels joined together. The carpels are oblong, with broad, wing-like ridges on both sides, giving them a fan-like appearance.

References

Hayashi, Yasaka, Kadota, Yuichi, and Hirano, Takahisa. 2013. Yamakei Handy Illustrated Guide 1: Wildflowers (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 664pp. ISBN: 9784635070195

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Shimizu, Takemi. 2001. Illustrated Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Yasaka Shobo, Tokyo. xii, 323pp. ISBN: 9784896944792

Watanabe, Osamu. 1999. Illustrated Key to Major Apiaceae Plants in Hokkaido, Part 1: Large Species - Plants Identified by Leaves 2. Shiretoko Museum Research Report 20: 15-32. ISSN: 0387-8716, https://shiretoko-museum.jpn.org/media/shuppan/kempo/sm20_02.pdf

Solanum lyratum, Solanum sulphureum, Solanum holosteoides, and Solanum jasminoides all belong to the Solanaceae family and are four species that share the characteristic of being "climbing plants." The basic structure of their flowers and fruits is the same, so these four species are often confused. However, these four species have clear differences. Solanum jasminoides and Solanum sulphureum are completely different species. This can be determined by examining the hairs on the stem and the shape of the leaves. The flowers are sympetalous and have yellow, perforated anthers like a banana. The fruit is a berry. This article will explain the classification and morphology of climbing Solanum species.

What are Japanese honeysuckle, mountain dappled, round-leaved dappled, and crescent-leaf nightshade?

Solanum lyratum, also known as Japanese honeysuckle, is a climbing perennial herb that grows at the edges of forests and is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; as well as in Korea, China, and Southeast Asia (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Solanum japonense, also known as Yamahoroshi, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Korea and China, growing in forest edges and within forests (Kadota et al., 2013).

Solanum maximowiczii, also known as round-leaved holly, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of the southern Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, growing in evergreen broad-leaved forests and valleys at the foot of mountains (Ohashi et al., 2017).

Solanum laxum, also known as climbing nightshade, is a perennial vine distributed in southeastern Brazil, Argentina, and the La Plata River estuary in Uruguay, growing in Atlantic coastal forests, Norfolk Island forests, riparian forests, and open forest edges (Brazil Flora G., 2023). It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in both temperate and subtropical regions worldwide, including Japan, and has naturalized and become naturalized in places like Australia and New Zealand.

All four species belong to the Solanaceae family, specifically the Solanum genus, and are characterized by their "climbing" growth habit. Their basic flower and fruit structures are the same.

Regarding *Solanum lyratum*, *Solanum lyratum*, and *Solanum sarmentosum*, they can be said to belong to a similar group of wild species. They also share the characteristic of having corollas that sometimes curve backward.

Furthermore, the plant Solanum jasminoides is sometimes called "Yamahoroshi" in horticulture as an alternative name, making the two species easily confused. Distinguishing them based solely on their leaves seems difficult.

What are the differences between Solanum lyratum, Solanum sulphureum, Solanum holosteoides, and Solanum jasminoides?

However, these four species have clear differences. Solanum jasminoides and Solanum sarmentosum are also completely different species.

First, since Solanum lyratum, Solanum sulphureum, and Solanum holosteoides are wild species, and Solanum jasminoides is a cultivated species, it's safe to assume that Solanum jasminoides is not commonly found in the wild in Japan.

We will also consider morphological differences.

Firstly, in Solanum lyratum, the stem is densely covered with glandular hairs of varying lengths, whereas in Solanum sarmentosum, Solanum holosteoides, and Solanum jasminoides, the stem is either hairless or has only a few soft hairs.

Regarding the remaining three species, the differences are as follows: in Solanum sarmentosum and Solanum holosteoides, the corolla is deeply incised, the lobes sometimes curve backward, and the color is purple with a yellowish-green inner throat; in Solanum jasminoides, the corolla is shallowly incised, the lobes do not curve backward, and the color is entirely white to pale purple.

Distinguishing between Solanum sarmentosum and Solanum holosteoides is the most difficult, but in Solanum sarmentosum, the leaves are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, with a heart-shaped, rounded, or truncate base, and entire, wavy, or serrated margins, sometimes 3-5 lobed near the base, while in Solanum holosteoides, the leaves are elliptical or ovate-lanceolate, with a wedge-shaped base that flows into the petiole, and are entire and undivided.

There are many distinguishing features, but the shape of the base of the leaf blade is probably the easiest to identify. The Japanese name "Marubanohoroshi" (round-leaved holly) certainly describes a characteristic feature, but it's important to note that even Yamahoroshi can have entire, undivided margins.

Other differences include the fact that in Solanum sarmentosum, the upper surface of young leaves has distinct hairs and the inner surface of the flower throat is dark purple, while in Solanum sarmentosum, the upper surface of young leaves has scattered dot-like projections and the inner surface of the flower throat is green.

Are there any other similar species?

The Solanum genus includes many other species, but the number of climbing herbaceous plants is limited.

For those who want to know the difference between Solanum species with upright stems and those with woody stems, please see our other article.

What are the differences between eggplant and nightshade? What is the origin and evolution of eggplant? Why is nightshade disliked? Does its flower pollinate by vibration? Why are nightshade fruits poisonous?

Both eggplant (Nasu) and nightshade (Nightshade japonica) share the name "eggplant" and have similar flower shapes, so those unfamiliar with them might confuse them. However, eggplant and nightshade are completely different species. Eggplant is a cultivated plant that does not grow wild and has no thorns, while nightshade is a wild plant...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences between *Tama coral* (winter coral) and *Himeta coral*? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Both Solanum sieboldii (winter coral) and Solanum nigrum belong to the Solanaceae family and are cultivated extensively for ornamental purposes because they produce attractive, round, red, ripe fruits (berries) in winter. However, in Japan, it is not always possible to properly distinguish between the two varieties, Solanum sieboldii and Solanum nigrum...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences between *Solanum nigrum*, *Solanum sibiricum*, *Solanum nigrum*, and *Solanum nigrum*? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species!

Black nightshade, large black nightshade, American black nightshade, and glossy black nightshade all belong to the Solanaceae family and Solanum genus. They are very commonly seen in urban areas, and can even be found in green spaces in large cities. They are characterized by their round, black, ripening fruits, but the four species are very similar...

ecological-information.com

What is the structure of a flower?

Flowers of the Solanum genus are all fused-petal flowers, and this is true for all four species. In particular, the stamens have a distinctive feature common to all species in the Solanum genus.

This is because the anthers, which are the pollen-containing parts of the stamen, are large and conspicuous, and these anthers taper to a point with a small hole. Such anthers are called "porous anthers" (Shimizu, 2001).

Japanese honeysuckle (Solanum lyratum) blooms from August to September. Numerous flowers are borne in cymose inflorescences. The corolla is white, about 1 cm in diameter, deeply divided into five lobes, with the lobes curving backward. There are five stamens, with thick, short filaments. The anthers are yellow.

Solanum sarmentosum flowers from July to September. It bears sparsely branched cymose inflorescences with several flowers, originating from the opposite side of the leaves or partway up the stem. The calyx is saucer-shaped and has five lobes at the tip. The pedicels thicken slightly below the calyx. The corolla is pale purple, deeply five-lobed, and about 1 cm in diameter. Initially, it spreads flat, but later each lobe curves strongly backward. There are yellowish-green glands at the base of the lobes, and the inner surface of the throat is dark purple. There are five yellow stamens, clustered in the center of the flower and erect. The anthers are oblong, about 3 mm long, and surround the pistil.

Solanum sieboldii flowers from August to September. It produces sparsely branched cymose inflorescences from the middle of the stem or from the opposite side of the leaves. The calyx is saucer-shaped and shallowly 5-lobed. The corolla is pale purple, deeply 5-lobed at the tip, about 1 cm in diameter, with a yellowish-green inner surface of the throat, and the lobes strongly curve backward when open. The anthers are oblong, not tapering at the tip, and about 3 mm long.

Solanum jasminoides flowers from June to October. The inflorescence is terminal or laterally attached, over 5 cm long, and branches many times, although usually only 2-3 times, bearing up to 50 flowers, and is hairless. The calyx is 1-1.5 mm, conical to slightly flattened. The corolla is 1.8-2.2 cm in diameter, white or pale purple, star-shaped, and split about halfway down to the base, with lobes 7-9 x 5-6 mm, spreading out flat when in bloom. The anthers are 3.5-4 mm long and oval-shaped.

What is the structure of the fruit?

These four species, like other members of the Solanum genus, have berries.

The berries of the Japanese honeysuckle are spherical, about 8 mm in diameter, and ripen to a reddish color.

The berries of Solanum sarmentosum are spherical, 6-7 mm in diameter, and occasionally oval-shaped, ripening to red in the autumn. The seeds are approximately 2 mm in diameter.

The berries of Solanum sieboldii are spherical, turning red when ripe, and measuring 7-10 mm in diameter. The seeds are approximately 3 mm in diameter.

The berries of Solanum jasminoides are spherical, about 1 cm in diameter. When ripe, they turn dark purple, and the pericarp is thin and glossy. Each fruit contains 10 to 20 seeds, each about 3 x 2.5 mm, flattened, kidney-shaped, light brown, and has a surface with fine pores.

References

Brazil Flora G. 2023. Brazilian Flora 2020 project. Version 393.387. Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro. https://doi.org/10.15468/1mtkaw

Kadota, Y., Nagata, Y., & Azegami, N. 2013. Flowers Blooming in the Mountains (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 616pp. ISBN: 9784635070218

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Shimizu, Takemi. 2001. Illustrated Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Yasaka Shobo, Tokyo. xii, 323pp. ISBN: 9784896944792

Scutellaria indica, Scutellaria baicalensis, Scutellaria japonica, and Scutellaria japonica all belong to the genus Scutellaria in the family Lamiaceae. They are often confused in horticulture, and because they frequently grow in forest edges and on the forest floor, their large, swollen corollas are similar in shape, making them difficult to distinguish by observing only the flowers. While there are many species in the genus Scutellaria, these four species can be distinguished by comprehensively observing the inflorescence, stem hairs, and leaf shape. The flowers are characterized by a helmet-shaped corolla and a long corolla tube, and it is likely that bees such as bumblebees with long mouthparts are the primary visitors, although this has not been studied sufficiently. After flowering, the lip-shaped calyx enlarges, enclosing the fruit (schizocarp), and when ripe, the upper part falls off, scattering the fruit when it rains. This article will explain the classification, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of *Scutellaria indica*, *Scutellaria parvifolia*, *Scutellaria japonica*, and *Scutellaria longiseta*.

What are Tatsunamisou, Kobano Tatsunami, Okatatsunamisou, and Namikisou?

Scutellaria indica var. indica, also known as Tatsunamisou, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of Fukushima Prefecture), Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, China, and Indochina, growing in forest edges and grasslands on hillsides.

Scutellaria indica var. parvifolia, also known as velvet tatsunami or small tatsunamisou, is a perennial plant distributed throughout Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan. It grows along roadsides, in crevices in stone walls, and is also common along coastlines. It is widely cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Scutellaria brachyspica, also known as Okatatsunamisou, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of Fukushima Prefecture) and Shikoku in Japan, growing in forest floors and other areas on hillsides.

Scutellaria strigillosa, also known as Namikisou, is a perennial herb that grows in sandy areas along the coast and is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and northern Kyushu in Japan; the Korean Peninsula; China; Northeast China; Ussuri; Sakhalin; and the Kuril Islands.

Both belong to the genus Scutellaria in the Lamiaceae family and often grow at the edge or on the forest floor. Their large, swollen corollas are similar in shape, and it may be difficult to distinguish them by observing only the flowers. In particular, in horticulture, what is actually Scutellaria indica is sometimes called Scutellaria indica.

What are the differences between *Tatsunamisou*, *Kobano Tatsunami*, *Okata Tatsunamisou*, and *Namikisou*?

There are 18 known species of the genus *Scutellaria* in Japan, and it's impossible to cover them all here. However, I will list the distinguishing features of four commonly searched species. For those who want to know all the distinguishing features, I recommend referring to Ohashi et al. (2017) or the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018).

First, in *Scutellaria indica*, the flowers grow singly in the leaf axils (they do not form inflorescences), whereas in other species such as *Scutellaria indica*, *Scutellaria baicalensis*, and *Scutellaria japonica*, the flowers form terminal racemes.

Regarding the remaining three species, *Scutellaria indica* has short, downward-pointing hairs on its stems and prominent glandular dots on the underside of its leaves, while *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis* have prominent spreading hairs on their stems and inconspicuous glandular dots on the underside of their leaves. Additionally, the inflorescence of *Scutellaria indica* does not lengthen vertically, with the flowers clustered at roughly the same height, whereas there are differences in the height at which the flowers are located within the inflorescence of *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis*.

Regarding *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis*, *Scutellaria indica* has an upright stem that grows to 20-40 cm, leaves that are 10-25 mm long, and 7-14 pairs of lateral serrations, while *Scutellaria baicalensis* has a stem that creeps along the ground at the base, growing to 5-20 cm, leaves that are 5-15 mm long, and 3-7 pairs of lateral serrations.

Other differences between *Scutellaria indica* and *Scutellaria baicalensis* include the fact that *Scutellaria baicalensis* has more fine hairs on the corolla and pedicel, the corolla is bluish-purple (white in the cultivar *Scutellaria baicalensis* f. alba, and pale pink in *Scutellaria baicalensis* f. lilacina), and the intensity and shape of the markings on the central and lateral lobes of the lower lip vary, sometimes being almost absent. Regarding habitat, *Scutellaria baicalensis* tends to prefer coastal areas, but there are many escaped individuals from cultivation, so this alone is not sufficient for identification.

What is the structure of a flower?

The flower's structure is that of a "labiate flower," as it belongs to the mint family. A labiate flower is one in which the tip of the tubular corolla is divided into two parts, upper and lower, resembling lips.

In the genus Scutellaria, the calyx is lip-shaped and has both an upper and lower lip. Another distinctive structure is the presence of a "scutellum." The scutellum is a large projection attached to the upper lip of the calyx, which persists into the fruiting stage and serves to enclose the fruit.

Scutellaria indica blooms from May to June. It produces flower spikes 3 to 8 cm long at the tips of its stems, with the flowers clustered in one direction. The flowers are bluish-purple or pale reddish-purple, and rarely white, which is called white-flowered Scutellaria indica f. amagiensis. The corolla is lip-shaped, about 2 cm long, with a long tube that curves sharply at the base and stands upright. The upper lip is helmet-shaped and swollen. The lower lip is three-lobed and has purple spots on the inside. The calyx is lip-shaped, with a rounded bulge (scutellum) on the back of the upper lip. After flowering, the calyx lengthens slightly and closes its mouth.

Scutellaria indica blooms from May to June. It is almost identical to Scutellaria indica, but the corolla and pedicel have more fine hairs, the corolla is bluish-purple (white in the white-flowered variety Scutellaria indica f. alba, and pale pink in Scutellaria indica f. lilacina), and there are markings on the central and lateral lobes of the lower lip, but the intensity and shape of the markings vary and they may be almost absent.

Okatatsunamisou blooms from May to June. Its inflorescence is shorter than that of Tatsunamisou, with flowers clustered at the end of the stem. The flowers are about 2 cm long. The lower lip is folded, and the markings on the petals are faint, sometimes almost nonexistent. The calyx is divided into upper and lower lips, with a large, circular scutellum rising from the upper lip of the calyx. The corolla and calyx also have glandular dots and glandular hairs.

Namikisou (a type of orchid) blooms from June to September. The flowers grow in pairs at each node, leaning towards one direction, with one flower per leaf axil at the top. They are 1.8-2.2 cm long, bluish-purple, and bent at the base, growing almost upright. The calyx is 3 mm long when in bloom.

How does pollination occur? Bumblebees come!?

It is known that at least some species of the genus Scutellaria produce both open and closed flowers. In the case of Scutellaria indica, there are populations that produce both open and closed flowers, and populations that produce only closed flowers (Sun, 1999).

Cleistogamous flowers can self-pollinate by keeping their corollas closed, eliminating the need for cross-pollination by insects and enabling stable reproduction. However, they have the disadvantage of lacking genetic diversity.

In open flowers, pollination is carried out by insects. While it is unclear for *Scutellaria indica *, it has been found that in three species—*Scutellaria indica var. satokoae*, *Scutellaria indica var. parvifolia *, and *Scutellaria muramatsui* —the upper and lower lips of the corolla weakly absorb ultraviolet light to make them conspicuous to pollinating insects, while the edges of the corolla pores, i.e., the space between the upper and lower lips and the base of the lower lip, weakly reflect ultraviolet light (Naruhashi et al., 2004).

However, no studies on specific pollinating insects attracted by these characteristics could be found in mainland Japan. However, using Google Image Search, one blog shows a bumblebee (Bombus ignitus) visiting a flower (tonji, 2023). Also, although it does not contribute to pollination, another site shows a long-horned bee (Bombus nipponicus) inserting its mouthparts into the base of the corolla and stealing nectar (Fukuhara, 2025).

The mint family is generally closely associated with specific types of bees, and it seems likely that bumblebees, such as those found in the Scutellaria genus, would also visit plants of this genus, given the length of their flower tubes and the size of their corollas.

As an exception, *Scutellaria indica* is unique, characterized by its even more elongated, tubular white flowers than *Scutellaria indica*, and is thought to be pollinated by hawk moths, which likely have proboscises longer than those of bees (Abe, 2006). *Scutellaria indica* is considered to have a relatively long flower tube within its genus, and it has been suggested that it may have evolved after reaching the Ogasawara Islands (Abe, 2009).

What is the structure of the fruit?

All species in the genus Scutellaria have fruits that are divided into four segments. After flowering, the calyx remains, the lips of the upper and lower calyx close, and the scutellum develops to enclose the fruit (schizocarp). Some internet articles mistakenly refer to the calyx as the "fruit" and the fruit as the "seed," but this is incorrect.

In *Scutellaria indica*, when the fruit matures, the upper lip of the large, saucer-shaped calyx falls off, leaving the lower lip like a receptacle, exposing the four fruitlets. The fruitlets are small, chestnut to dark brown, oval-shaped, and about 1.2 to less than 1.5 mm in length, densely covered with small protrusions.

In *Scutellaria indica*, the fruit is almost identical to that of *Scutellaria indica*, but the length of the fruit segments is 1-1.2 mm.

In *Scutellaria indica*, when the fruit matures, the upper lip of the large, saucer-shaped calyx falls off, leaving the lower lip like a receptacle, exposing the four fruitlets. The fruitlets are about 2 mm long and densely covered with small protrusions.

In *Namikisou*, the upper lip of the calyx remains attached even after the fruit matures, continuing to enclose the four fruitlets. The fruitlets are approximately 1.25 mm in diameter, yellowish-brown, nearly spherical, and densely covered with small protrusions.

How were seeds dispersed? Were they relying on the power of raindrops?!

While *Scutellaria indica* is an exception, many species of the *Scutellaria* genus have saucer-shaped calyxes that expose the fruit on the upper side. This is thought to serve the purpose of dispersing the fruit by trapping raindrops on the calyx (Kobayashi, 2007). In other words, this is a form of "rain dispersal." This is a fairly uncommon method of seed dispersal in Japan and is likely to have an impact on its habitat.

References

Abe, T. 2006. Threatened pollination systems in native flora of the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands. Annals of Botany 98(2): 317-334. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcl117

Tetsuto Abe. 2009. Current status of pollination system disturbances in the Ogasawara Islands and their management strategies. Global Environment 14(1): 47-55. http://www.airies.or.jp/attach.php/6a6f75726e616c5f31342d316a706e/save/0/0/14_1-08.pdf

Tatsuhito Fukuhara. 2025, October 21. Various Pollination Methods. Fukuhara's Page (Plant Morphology, Biological Image Collection, etc.). https://staff.fukuoka-edu.ac.jp/fukuhara/keitai/6-3.html

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kobayashi, Masaaki. 2007. From Flower to Seed: The Science of Seed Dispersal. National Rural Education Association, Tokyo. 247pp. ISBN: 9784881371251

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Naruhashi, N., Sawanomukai, T., Wakasugi, T., & Iwatsubo, Y. 2004. A new variety of Scutellaria (Lamiaceae) from Japan. The Journal of Phytogeography and Toxonomy 52(2): 127-135. http://hdl.handle.net/2297/48678

Sun, M. 1999. Cleistogamy in Scutellaria indica (Labiatae): effective mating system and population genetic structure. Molecular Ecology 8(8): 1285-1295. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.1999.00691.x

tonji. April 26, 2023. A rare bee, the black bumblebee. It's the season in Miyazaki! https://www.nekoton.com/entry/2023/04/26/000000

Goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus umbellata (Elaeagnus umbellata) share the common characteristic of producing delicious red berries in the summer. However, their botanical characteristics are quite different. The most reliable way to distinguish between goji berries and Elaeagnus umbellata is by their leaves and flowers, although there are also differences in the fruit stalks. Goji berries can be eaten raw, but they are described as having a "fishy smell, a very bland taste, and a slight bitterness," and may not be very tasty unless processed. On the other hand, Elaeagnus umbellata, particularly Elaeagnus macrophylla, is considered delicious. Goji berries are primarily eaten as dried fruit, and the leaves and buds are also edible and used in traditional Chinese medicine. Goji berry flowers, perhaps because they belong to the nightshade family, are conspicuously purple, but their shape is not particularly specialized, resembling a typical flower, and are likely mainly visited by small bees. In nature, the fruit is used by birds and raccoons. This article will explain the classification, uses, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus multiflora (Elaeagnus multiflora).

A delicious red berry that ripens in the summer.

Goji berry (Lycium chinense) is a shrub distributed throughout Japan, the Korean Peninsula, China, and Taiwan (Hirano, 1997). It is cultivated and sometimes naturalized in South Asia (Nepal), Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia), and Europe (Paisooksantivatana, 1994), and has recently spread to North America (Shirataka, 2018). It inhabits plains with wasteland such as embankments and ditches, and sandy areas near water (Tanaka, 1995; Ohashi et al., 2017). It is cultivated for its edible fruits and leaves.

Botanically, "gumi" (茱萸) is a general term for the genus Elaeagnus and does not refer to a specific plant species. However, in horticulture, it generally refers to Elaeagnus multiflora var. hortensis, or Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea, a cultivar of Elaeagnus multiflora with large fruits (Funakoshi, 2017). Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea is also called "bikkuri gumi" (surprise gumi) in horticulture.

Elaeagnus multiflora is a deciduous shrub distributed in Hokkaido (Oshima Peninsula) and Honshu (the Sea of Japan side north of central Japan, and central Kinki region), growing in forest edges and within woodlands (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is cultivated for its edible fruit.

From a distance, both goji berries and jujubes appear to be delicious-looking red berries, and their leaves are oblong to oval-shaped, so someone unfamiliar with them might not be able to distinguish them just by looking at the fruit.

The most reliable way to distinguish between goji berries and Elaeagnus umbellata is by their leaves and flowers; the fruits differ in their pedicels.

However, goji berries belong to the nightshade family, while jujubes belong to the Elaeagnaceae family; their classifications are completely different and are the result of convergent evolution. There are considerable differences in their leaves and stems.

First, there is a striking difference in the leaves. The leaves of the goji berry are soft, papery, and hairless, while those of the Chinese olive have silvery-white or brownish scale-like or stellate hairs, and from a distance, countless tiny dots are visible, giving them a sparkling appearance.

Regarding the stems, goji berries (Lycium chinense) have ridges (horns) and thorns. Chinese jack-in-the-valley (Elaeagnus umbellata) has no ridges and no thorns. However, be aware that other species in the Elaeagnus genus may have thorns.

The flowers are completely different; in the wolfberry, the corolla is pale purple and broadly funnel-shaped, whereas in this species, the flower is pale yellow and the calyx tube, which replaces the corolla, is cylindrical.

The most difficult part is the fruit, and first of all, there is a difference in the fruiting period. Goji berries fruit from August to November, while angelica tree berries fruit from June to July. However, depending on the region and weather, there may be some overlap.

Another difference is that the fruit stalk, the elongated organ that attaches the fruit to the plant, is thick and round at the fruit end in goji berries before abruptly narrowing, whereas in angelica trees it remains consistently thin.

Based on the above, you can definitely distinguish them. Judging them by the shape or color of the fruit would be quite difficult.

If you want to learn how to distinguish between different types of gummy candies, please see our other article.

What are the differences between autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive? Can they be eaten raw? Is the "sparkle" on the leaves to prevent drying? What insects visit the flowers? Are the sweet and sour fruits very popular in nature?

Autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive are all members of the Elaeagnus genus in the Elaeagnaceae family. They can be found in various locations throughout Japan, including rivers, coastlines, and forests. Their leaves are covered in shimmering stellate or scale-like hairs, and they produce pale yellow flowers consisting only of a cylindrical calyx tube, lacking petals.

ecological-information.com

While goji berries can be eaten raw, is eating them raw not so great?

The goji berry is best known for its red berries, and nowadays, it's most familiar to humans as a dried fruit. While it can be eaten fresh, some say it has a "fishy smell, a very bland taste, and a slight bitterness," so it's not very tasty.

In addition, the young shoots in spring and the leaves from summer to autumn are boiled and rinsed in water to be used in salads or blanched dishes, while the raw berries are thoroughly washed and used in tempura, stir-fries, or soups. The fully ripened berries are thoroughly washed and steeped in white liquor to make fruit wine. The leaves and roots are finely chopped and dried to make goji berry tea.

The fruit, root bark, and leaves are also used in traditional Chinese medicine (Shirataka, 2018).

Besides being eaten fresh, the Japanese laurel (Elaeagnus multiflora) is used in jams and other products, as well as to make fruit wine (Elaeagnus multiflora wine). There are various opinions on the taste of eating it fresh, with some saying it is "sweet and sour with a lingering astringency," and others saying it is "almost astringent and sweet enough to be eaten raw." However, the cultivated variety, Elaeagnus macrophylla, is generally considered delicious. Other species of Elaeagnus multiflora, however, are often very sour or bitter and would be difficult to eat without processing.

Are bees primarily attracted to flowers of the nightshade family that have completely different anther shapes?

The flowers of the goji berry are just as vibrant as the fruit, pale purple, and funnel-shaped (Ohashi et al., 2017). They bloom from July to November, from summer to autumn. Although they belong to the same Solanaceae family as eggplants, the shape of their stamens is completely different, with the anthers of the typical form protruding from the outside of the flower.

According to overseas records, this flower is visited by bees, flies, and ants (Paisooksantivatana, 1994), and in Japan, honeybees (Howes, 2015) and red-winged bumblebees (Ikutome, 1992) have also been confirmed. A Google image search also confirmed that a species of bumblebee and a yellow-breasted bumblebee have visited the flower in Japan. There does not seem to be any research yet that has investigated the overall proportion of these species, but it is thought that in Japan, there are many bees that can extend their mouthparts into the funnel-shaped opening.

While pollination in the Solanum genus, including eggplant, is limited to bees capable of vibration pollination, goji berries seem to be able to accommodate a variety of bees. The reason why this method of pollination works is not yet fully understood, but it may be because they have evolved in an environment where there are few insects that steal nectar from outside the flower without carrying pollen, such as bumblebees. However, there are also photographs of bumblebees visiting, so the actual reason remains unclear and research is insufficient.

What are the differences between eggplant and nightshade? What is the origin and evolution of eggplant? Why is nightshade disliked? Does its flower pollinate by vibration? Why are nightshade fruits poisonous?

Both eggplant (Nasu) and nightshade (Nightshade japonica) share the name "eggplant" and have similar flower shapes, so those unfamiliar with them might confuse them. However, eggplant and nightshade are completely different species. Eggplant is a cultivated plant that does not grow wild and has no thorns, while nightshade is a wild plant...

ecological-information.com

Do birds and mammals eat goji berries?

What animals in the wild eat goji berries, which can only be enjoyed after being processed by humans?

While this point has not been studied sufficiently, the presence of goji berry seeds carried by birds under persimmon trees suggests that dispersal by birds is a possibility (Takatsuki, 2021).

However, there are also reports that it is being used by raccoons (Takatsuki, 2018).

It's possible that both methods are used, but since it grows in sandy areas near water, bird dispersal might be the primary method. A Chinese study also treats it as bird dispersal (Li et al., 2006).

However, it seems that it is not known which types of birds prefer it.

References

Funakoshi, Ryoji. 2017. 100 Fruit Trees You Can Grow and Eat Yourself: From Familiar Fruits to Popular Berries. Shufunotomo Co., Ltd., Tokyo. 167pp. ISBN: 9784074272013

Hirano, Takahisa. 1997. Tree Guidebook: Understanding the Characteristics and Uses of Trees Found in Gardens, Parks, and Wildlife. Nagaoka Shoten, Tokyo. 319pp. ISBN: 9784522215579

Howes, FN 2015. Plants and Beekeeping. Andesite Press, California. 264pp. ISBN: 9781296522247

Ikutome, Shuichi. 1992. Environment and bee fauna of urban nature parks: Survey results in Shiroyama Park, Kagoshima City. Appendix: Revised Catalogue of bees in mainland Kagoshima Prefecture. Bulletin of Kagoshima Women's Junior College 27: 99-135. ISSN: 0286-8970, http://id.nii.ac.jp/1121/00000877/

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

Paisooksantivatana, Y. 1994. Lycium chinense. In: JS Siemonsma, & K. Piluek (Eds.), Plant Resources in South-East Asia (No. 8 Vegetables, pp. 198-199). Pudoc. ISBN: 9789022010587, http://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Lycium_chinense_(PROSEA)

Shirataki, Yoshiaki. 2018. Wildflowers of the Mountains and Fields: Edible and Medicinal Properties of Common Wild Plants - Lycium chinense Miller (Solanaceae family). New Food Industry 60(9): 52-54. ISSN: 0547-0277, https://www.i-repository.net/il/user_contents/02/G0000284repository/pdf/JOS-05470277-60(9)-52.pdf

Takatsuki, Shigeki. 2018. Characteristics of fruits used by raccoons—a review. Mammalian Science 58(2): 237-246. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.58.237

Takatsuki, Seiki. 2021. Seed dispersal by birds to persimmon trees on the Azabu University campus. Azabu University Journal 32: 1-9. http://id.nii.ac.jp/1112/00005374/

Tanaka, Koji. 1995. Herbal Health Methods: Effectiveness and Usage at a Glance. Kodansha, Tokyo. 123pp. ISBN: 9784061953727

Source

This article is a significantly expanded version of the one included in the following book.