Autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive are all members of the Elaeagnus genus in the Elaeagnaceae family and can be found in various locations in Japan, such as rivers, coastlines, and forests. Their leaves are covered in shimmering stellate and scale-like hairs, and they produce pale yellow flowers that lack petals and consist only of a cylindrical calyx tube. They share many similarities, making identification difficult, but they can be properly distinguished by carefully observing their leaves, flowers, and fruits. Except for the large-leaved olive, the fruits are not eaten raw and are used to make jam or alcohol. The "shimmering" appearance of the leaves is due to the stellate and scale-like hairs, which are thought to reflect sunlight and prevent drying. Bees are the primary pollinators of the flowers, but in China, there are known instances of the sunbird pollinating them. The fruits are pseudocarps, and seed dispersal is thought to be mainly carried out by birds, but there are also known instances of mammals eating them, suggesting that they may appeal to both birds and mammals. This article will explain the classification, uses, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of the Elaeagnus genus.

What are autumn berries, summer berries, Chinese berries, and Japanese berries?

Autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) is a deciduous shrub distributed in Hokkaido (Oshima Peninsula), Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu (Yakushima) in Japan; as well as in Korea and China (northeast and central regions). It grows in sunny locations such as riverbeds, fields, roadsides, and riverbanks (Mogi et al., 2000; Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It particularly prefers disturbed areas near water and, due to its tolerance, has invaded North America, Europe, and Australia (Rojas-Sandoval & Pasiecznik, 2016).

Elaeagnus multiflora var. multiflora, also known as summer cherry blossom, is a deciduous shrub or tree distributed in southern Hokkaido and Honshu (the Pacific coast from Fukushima Prefecture to Shizuoka Prefecture) in coastal areas and hillsides, mixed forests, and open fields.

Elaeagnus multiflora var. hortensis, also known as the Chinese jack-of-war, is a deciduous shrub found only in Hokkaido (Oshima Peninsula) and Honshu (the Sea of Japan side north of central Japan and central Kinki region) in Japan, growing in forest edges and within woodlands (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is cultivated for its edible fruit and escapes cultivation. A horticultural variety with larger fruits, around 2 cm in size, called the giant jack-of-war , Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea, is also known and is sometimes called the "surprise jack-of-war" in horticulture.

Elaeagnus pungens, also known as Japanese snowbell, is an evergreen shrub distributed in Japan from the Izu Peninsula westward to Kyushu, growing along the coast and at the edges of coastal forests.

Like legumes, members of the Elaeagnus genus live in symbiosis with the nitrogen-fixing actinomycete fungus Frankia. Frankia fixes nitrogen from the air, allowing Elaeagnus species to grow even in nitrogen-poor soils (Rojas-Sandoval & Pasiecznik, 2016). For this reason, they are known to be able to invade many areas as invasive species.

All four species belong to the Elaeagnus genus of the Elaeagnaceae family, and they share common characteristics such as leaves that sparkle with stellate or scale-like hairs on their surface, and pale yellow flowers that lack petals and consist only of a cylindrical calyx tube. Therefore, identifying these four species can be quite difficult.

What are the differences between autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and Japanese silverleaf olive?

However, these four species can be distinguished by comprehensively observing their various characteristics (Hayashi, 2014; Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). There are many other species in the Elaeagnus genus, but this time we will focus on these four species.

First, autumn olive, summer olive, and Chinese olive have thin, deciduous leaves, flower from spring to summer, and fruit from summer to autumn, while Japanese snowbell olive has thick, evergreen leaves, flower from autumn to winter, and fruit from spring to summer. These are the main differences between the two species.

There are many differences between autumn olive (Elaeagnus multiflora), summer olive (Elaeagnus multiflora), and Chinese olive (Elaeagnus umbellata).

Regarding the leaves, in autumn olive, the leaf blade is usually narrow, with the upper surface of mature leaves remaining to almost hairless, and the lower surface mainly covered with silvery scales, with only a few whitish brownish scales. In contrast, in summer olive and Chinese olive, the leaf blade is usually broad, the upper surface of mature leaves is hairless, and the lower surface is often mixed with reddish-brown scales among silvery scales.

Regarding the flowers, in autumn olive, the calyx tube is narrow and gradually narrows towards the ovary (lower part of the calyx tube), whereas in summer olive and Chinese olive, the calyx tube is tubular and constricts above the ovary.

Regarding the fruit, in autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), the fruit stalk is short and erect, the fruit itself is spherical to elliptic-spherical, and the fruiting period is from autumn to early winter (September to November), whereas in summer olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) and Chinese olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), the fruit stalk is long and drooping, the fruit itself is broadly elliptic, and the fruiting period is from spring to summer (May to August).

As for the remaining two species, the summer jasmine and the Chinese jasmine, there are only slight differences between them as they are variations of each other.

In Elaeagnus multiflora, the upper surface of the young leaves has silvery, scale-like hairs, while in Elaeagnus umbellata, the upper surface of the young leaves has stellate hairs.

Since it's a little difficult to observe, confirming the distribution is important, but because the Chinese gentian is cultivated and can escape into the wild, it would be difficult to determine the species based solely on distribution for the populations on the Pacific side from Fukushima Prefecture to Shizuoka Prefecture. The populations on the Sea of Japan side north of central Japan and in central Kinki can generally be considered Chinese gentian.

The difference between this and goji berries is explained in a separate article.

What are the differences between goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus umbellata (Elaeagnus umbellata)? Can they be eaten raw? How are they prepared? What kinds of insects visit the flowers?

Goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus umbellata (Elaeagnus umbellata) share the common characteristic of producing delicious red berries in the summer. However, their botanical characteristics are quite different. While the leaves and flowers are the most reliable way to distinguish between them, there are also differences in the fruit stalks. Goji berries can be eaten raw, but they have a "fishy smell...".

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Are the fruits of the gummy candy plant edible?

While the fruits of the Elaeagnus genus are generally considered edible raw, no records of taste comparisons of individual species could be found. However, wild varieties are generally described as having a strong sour and astringent taste, suggesting that few are suitable for eating raw. Furthermore, since birds are fond of eating them, unripe fruits are often left on the vine, but these are even more unpleasant and difficult to eat. This is thought to be because, as will be discussed later, the fruits have evolved primarily for birds.

It seems that the only fruit that humans can definitely eat as is and still taste good is the giant nut (Lycoris radiata).

Besides being eaten fresh, the Japanese laurel (Elaeagnus multiflora), the giant laurel (Elaeagnus umbellata), and the summer laurel (Elaeagnus multiflora) are used to make jams and other products, as well as to make fruit wine (Elaeagnus multiflora liqueur).

Although it is a relatively unknown food both globally and in Japan, the fruit of the summer olive tree is known to be highly nutritious, containing carbohydrates, organic acids, amino acids, and vitamin C, as well as biominerals, polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, chlorophyll, and vitamin E (tocopherol). Its use as food and medicine is being researched (Bieniek et al., 2022).

Why are the leaves of Elaeagnaceae plants "sparkly"? It's a way to withstand "drought"!?

The leaves of Elaeagnaceae plants have a mysterious "sparkle" that is not found on other plants. Furthermore, it can sometimes be seen on their flowers and fruits as well. How does this "sparkle" manifest?

You can see this by examining the leaves with a magnifying glass or microscope. The surface of the leaves is covered with special hairs called "scaly hairs" or "stellate hairs."

These are a type of "trichome" formed from the epidermis of vascular plants. Those with thin hairs radiating from a stalk are called stellate hairs, while those with radiating hairs fused together to resemble fish scales are called scaly hairs. Which type is present varies depending on the species and age. In the case of Elaeagnaceae plants, this variation is continuous.

But why do the leaves of Elaeagnaceae plants have such well-developed stellate and scale-like hairs? I have never seen any Japanese text explaining the reason for this.

However, research is progressing overseas, and studies in Argentina have yielded some interesting findings (Klich, 2000).

When examining the leaves of Elaeagnus angustifolia, a species native to the arid regions of Central Asia that has become an invasive species growing in waterways in many arid and semi-arid regions around the world, it was discovered that even within the same individual plant, there are differences in leaf morphology depending on the amount of sunlight. Among these differences were also variations in trichomes such as stellate hairs and scale-like hairs.

Specifically, the sun-loving leaves at the top of the tree are smaller, elongated, and thicker, and may fold over. In addition, they have only scale-like hairs, giving them a silvery to grayish-green color.

In contrast, the shade-loving leaves at the base of the tree were larger, thicker, and thinner, and were not folded, and were dark green because they only had stellate hairs.

This is thought to be related to the fact that sun-loving leaves are exposed to high levels of sunlight and dryness. Smaller, narrower leaves promote heat dissipation. Leaves fold to reduce the amount of light they receive.

The trichomes were also thought to serve a function in preventing "drying." The presence of trichomes reduces air movement on the leaf surface, creating a layer of still air and thus reducing the diffusion of water vapor from inside the leaf into the atmosphere.

Furthermore, "temperature regulation" can be considered as an indirect effect of the trichomes. The fine irregularities created by the dense layer of trichomes significantly increase the reflectivity of sunlight on the leaves, reducing sunlight absorption, which in turn lowers the leaf temperature and slows the rate of transpiration.

It appears that scaly hairs have a structure that is more resistant to dryness than stellate hairs. Scaly hairs are also known as peltate hairs, and they likely "shield" against sunlight.

Another study has shown that the trichomes of autumn olive exhibit a similar trend (Kim, 2018).

In summary, the reason why the leaves of Elaeagnaceae plants are shiny is that they reflect light to prevent drying and to regulate temperature.

However, most Elaeagnaceae plants found in Japan tend to grow along the coast. How is this related to their resistance to drought?

While there are no detailed studies specifically examining this aspect for the Elaeagnaceae family, coastal areas are generally dry due to high light intensity, high temperatures, and strong winds (Hesp, 1991). Therefore, many plants exhibit some adaptations to withstand drought, such as increasing the glossiness of their leaves. Thus, the scaly hairs of Elaeagnaceae plants are likely an important advantage for their coastal survival.

Furthermore, sea breezes can cause salt to adhere to plant tissue, leading to dehydration due to osmotic pressure (Yamanaka, 1960). It is possible that the scaly hairs physically prevent this.

Thus, these scaly hairs are not merely decorative; along with nitrogen fixation capabilities, they have essential functions for survival.

What is the structure of a flower?

Flowers of the Elaeagnus genus lack petals and consist only of a calyx tube.

Autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) flowers from April to May, with 1 to 6 flowers hanging down from the leaf axils. The flowers are initially white, gradually turning yellow. The calyx tube is 5-7 mm long and slightly constricted at the top of the ovary. There are four triangular sepals, about 4 mm long, with sharply pointed tips. The pedicel is 3-5 mm long. The calyx tube, sepals, ovary, and pedicel are densely covered with silvery, scale-like hairs.

Summer jasmine and Chinese jasmine bloom from April to May, with 1 to 3 pale yellow flowers hanging down from the leaf axils. The calyx tube is cylindrical, about 8 mm long, with a constriction at the top of the ovary. There are four large, broadly ovate sepals. The outer surfaces of the calyx tube, sepals, and ovary are densely covered with silvery, scale-like hairs. The pedicels are 8 to 12 mm long, densely covered with silvery, scale-like hairs, and interspersed with reddish-brown scale-like hairs.

Elaeagnus multiflora flowers from October to November, with several pale yellowish-brown flowers in the leaf axils. The calyx tube is 6-7 mm long, has four ridges, and is constricted at the base, connecting to the ovary. The outer surface is densely covered with silvery scale-like hairs, interspersed with brownish scale-like hairs.

While the basic structure and color of the flowers are similar, there are also clear differences as mentioned above.

What insects visit the flowers of the Elaeagnus genus? In China, even sunbirds were spotted visiting!?

What kinds of insects visit the flowers of the Elaeagnus genus? Understanding pollination methods is essential, especially from the perspective of cultivating these plants.

Generally, cylindrical flowers that hang down require sufficient muscle to hang and collect pollen and nectar, so it is well known that bees with well-developed such organs are attracted to them. Therefore, a similar tendency can be expected in the Elaeagnus genus.

In fact, pollination of Elaeagnus multiflora is mainly carried out by bees. Pollination of Elaeagnus umbellata is also carried out by honeybees and other insects of the Apidae family. However, in the case of Elaeagnus umbellata, it is thought that 0-70% is self-pollinating (Abdalla, 2019).

However, a Chinese research group has revealed that these trends differ somewhat in the case of autumn olive (Pi et al., 2021).

In this study, the morphology of flowers and pollinating animals were investigated at altitudes of 1160m, 1676m, and 2050m in the Minshan Mountains of Sichuan Province in southwestern China.

As a result, it was found that the higher the altitude, the smaller the flowers, the longer the flower tubes, the lower the sugar concentration, and the higher the amount of sucrose.

Furthermore, the flowers were visited by insects such as honeybees, bumblebees, and syrphidae, as well as birds of the sunbird family, at all locations. The presence of sunbirds is a slight difference from the Elaeagnus species mentioned above. But that's not all; we also found that the number of honeybee visitors decreased and the number of sunbird visitors increased as the altitude increased.

These facts suggest that the types of animals that visit a particular area change with altitude, and as a result, the shapes of flowers have undergone microevolution to adapt to these changes.

While temperatures drop at high altitudes, endothermic animals like the sunbird family and ectothermic bees like the bumblebee genus, which are large and have good heat retention, can tolerate the low temperatures. However, honeybees are not as well adapted to these conditions and their numbers decline.

Consequently, the shape of the summer jasmine flowers has changed to make it easier for sunbirds, which have long tongues and prefer sucrose, to access the nectar.

Since the sunbird family is not commonly found in Japan, it's unlikely that a similar adaptation would be seen in the Japanese autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), although it might be seen in other bird species. This kind of evolution, where plants change the shape of their flowers to adapt to the environment and ensure successful pollination, is being observed in various types of plants. It can be said to be a very flexible process.

What is the structure of the fruit? Are the fruits of the Elaeagnus genus not true fruits?

In the Elaeagnus genus, the part commonly referred to as the "fruit" is actually a pseudocarp from a plant morphological perspective. A pseudocarp is a fruit-like structure in which structures other than the ovary make up the majority of the structure. In the case of Elaeagnus, after flowering, the upper part of the calyx tube falls off, and the lower part of the calyx tube enclosing the true fruit develops, becomes fleshy, and eventually fuses with the ovary to form a fruit-like structure (Kobayashi, 2007).

Simply put, the delicious part of the fruit is the lower part of the calyx tube that formed the flower, which has developed into a more edible form.

The pseudofruits of the autumn olive are spherical to elliptic-spherical, 6-8 mm in diameter, and ripen red from September to November. The surface is covered with reddish-brown or white scale-like hairs. The fruit stalk is short and erect or curved. The seeds are elliptical, 4-5 mm long, and have eight grooves on the surface.

The pseudofruits of Elaeagnus multiflora and Elaeagnus umbellata are broadly oval-shaped, 1.2–1.7 cm long, and ripen from May to July. The seeds are obovate-oblong, about 1.2 cm long, and have eight deep grooves.

The pseudofruit of Elaeagnus multiflora is oblong, about 1.5 cm long, and ripens red in May or June of the following year. The upper part of the calyx tube remains at the tip.

The fruit was dispersed using a combination of bird and mammal dispersal!?

What kind of animal disperses the seeds of this sweet and sour fruit (false fruit) that humans can eat?

It is generally believed that Elaeagnus species are eaten and dispersed by birds (Abdalla, 2019). It is well known that red is a color that strongly attracts birds, and the red fruits of Elaeagnus species have similarly developed to attract birds. Furthermore, in the case of Elaeagnus umbellata, after the leaves wither, the red fruits line up in a straight line, an adaptation that makes them easily visible in open waterside areas.

Detailed research has been conducted on autumn olive in Japan (Kohri et al., 2011). This research investigates the amount of fruit consumed and the extent to which the fruit is actually dispersed by seed trapping, which involves setting up net traps and examining the seeds that fall from above.

These results show that because autumn olives produce fruit from autumn to winter, most of it is consumed by fruit-eating winter birds and resident birds by January, resulting in widespread seed dispersal. It can be said that it is a very popular fruit.

Unfortunately, this study did not investigate the proportion of each specific bird species that eat the fruit, but it identifies thrushes and bulbuls as representative examples. It also found that the more bird species there are, the more fruit is consumed and the further the seeds are dispersed, suggesting that many more species likely utilize the fruit in reality.

Furthermore, it has been suggested that the eaten seeds may be dispersed by water currents.

However, while there are results showing that these species rely on birds for seed dispersal, there are also records of them being eaten by mammals (Koike & Masaki, 2008).

Records show that autumn olives are eaten by Asiatic black bears, martens, raccoons, and foxes; summer olives are eaten by Asiatic black bears; and white olives are eaten by martens.

Therefore, while bird dispersal is the primary method, mammal dispersal may also be utilized. This is an interesting fact, as fruits dispersed by birds are not necessarily also consumed by mammals.

Furthermore, species such as Elaeagnus multiflora and Elaeagnus umbellata have different fruiting periods. It is currently unclear whether this leads to differences in the animals responsible for seed dispersal.

References

Abdalla, TE 2019. Some wild Elaeagnus species: overview, description, biochemistry, and utilization. In: AA Mariod (Ed.), Wild Fruits: Composition, Nutritional Value and Products (pp. 507-521). Springer. ISBN: 9783030318840, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31885-7_38

Bieniek, A., Lachowicz-Wiśniewska, S., & Bojarska, J. 2022. The Bioactive Profile, Nutritional Value, Health Benefits and Agronomic Requirements of Cherry Silverberry (Elaeagnus multiflora Thunb.): A Review. Molecules 27(9): 2719. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092719

Hayashi, Masayuki. 2014. 1100 Tree Leaves Identified Through Real-Life Scans. Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 759pp. ISBN: 9784635070324

Hesp, PA 1991. Ecological processes and plant adaptations on coastal dunes. Journal of Arid Environments 21(2): 165-191. ISSN: 0140-1963, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1963(18)30681-5

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kim, KW 2018. Peltate trichomes on biogenic silvery leaves of Elaeagnus umbellata. Microscopy Research and Technique 81(7): 789-795. https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.23037

Klich, MG 2000. Leaf variations in Elaeagnus angustifolia related to environmental heterogeneity. Environmental and Experimental Botany 44(3): 171-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-8472(00)00056-3

Kobayashi, Masaaki. 2007. From Flower to Seed: The Science of Seed Dispersal. National Rural Education Association, Tokyo. 247pp. ISBN: 9784881371251

Kohri, M., Kamada, M., & Nakagoshi, N. 2011. Spatial-temporal distribution of ornithochorous seeds from an Elaeagnus umbellata community dominating a riparian habitat. Plant Species Biology 26(2): 174-185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-1984.2011.00313.x

Koike, Shinsuke & Masaki, Takashi. 2008. A literature review of the use of woody plant fruits by three species of carnivorous plants south of Honshu. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 90(1): 26-35. https://doi.org/10.4005/jjfs.90.26

Mogi, Toru; Ota, Kazuo; Katsuyama, Teruo; Takahashi, Hideo; Shirokawa, Shiro; Yoshiyama, Hiroshi; Ishii, Hidemi; Sakio, Hitoshi; and Nakagawa, Shigetoshi. 2000. Flowers Blooming on Trees: Polypetalous Flowers (Vol. 2, 2nd edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 719pp. ISBN: 9784635070041

Pi, HQ, Quan, QM, Wu, B., Lv, XW, Shen, LM, & Huang, SQ 2021. Altitude-related shift of relative abundance from insect to sunbird pollination in Elaeagnus umbellata (Elaeagnaceae). Journal of Systematics and Evolution 59(6): 1266-1275. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12685

Rojas-Sandoval, J., & Pasiecznik, N. 2016. Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive). CABI Compendium. https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.20728

Yamanaka, Kuniyoshi. 1960. Damage to agricultural crops from salt spray and coastal forests. Water Resources Science 4(1): 94-102. https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2030845293

Goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus umbellata (Elaeagnus umbellata) share the common characteristic of producing delicious red berries in the summer. However, their botanical characteristics are quite different. The most reliable way to distinguish between goji berries and Elaeagnus umbellata is by their leaves and flowers, although there are also differences in the fruit stalks. Goji berries can be eaten raw, but they are described as having a "fishy smell, a very bland taste, and a slight bitterness," and may not be very tasty unless processed. On the other hand, Elaeagnus umbellata, particularly Elaeagnus macrophylla, is considered delicious. Goji berries are primarily eaten as dried fruit, and the leaves and buds are also edible and used in traditional Chinese medicine. Goji berry flowers, perhaps because they belong to the nightshade family, are conspicuously purple, but their shape is not particularly specialized, resembling a typical flower, and are likely mainly visited by small bees. In nature, the fruit is used by birds and raccoons. This article will explain the classification, uses, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of goji berries (Lycium chinense) and Elaeagnus multiflora (Elaeagnus multiflora).

A delicious red berry that ripens in the summer.

Goji berry (Lycium chinense) is a shrub distributed throughout Japan, the Korean Peninsula, China, and Taiwan (Hirano, 1997). It is cultivated and sometimes naturalized in South Asia (Nepal), Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia), and Europe (Paisooksantivatana, 1994), and has recently spread to North America (Shirataka, 2018). It inhabits plains with wasteland such as embankments and ditches, and sandy areas near water (Tanaka, 1995; Ohashi et al., 2017). It is cultivated for its edible fruits and leaves.

Botanically, "gumi" (茱萸) is a general term for the genus Elaeagnus and does not refer to a specific plant species. However, in horticulture, it generally refers to Elaeagnus multiflora var. hortensis, or Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea, a cultivar of Elaeagnus multiflora with large fruits (Funakoshi, 2017). Elaeagnus multiflora var. gigantea is also called "bikkuri gumi" (surprise gumi) in horticulture.

Elaeagnus multiflora is a deciduous shrub distributed in Hokkaido (Oshima Peninsula) and Honshu (the Sea of Japan side north of central Japan, and central Kinki region), growing in forest edges and within woodlands (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is cultivated for its edible fruit.

From a distance, both goji berries and jujubes appear to be delicious-looking red berries, and their leaves are oblong to oval-shaped, so someone unfamiliar with them might not be able to distinguish them just by looking at the fruit.

The most reliable way to distinguish between goji berries and Elaeagnus umbellata is by their leaves and flowers; the fruits differ in their pedicels.

However, goji berries belong to the nightshade family, while jujubes belong to the Elaeagnaceae family; their classifications are completely different and are the result of convergent evolution. There are considerable differences in their leaves and stems.

First, there is a striking difference in the leaves. The leaves of the goji berry are soft, papery, and hairless, while those of the Chinese olive have silvery-white or brownish scale-like or stellate hairs, and from a distance, countless tiny dots are visible, giving them a sparkling appearance.

Regarding the stems, goji berries (Lycium chinense) have ridges (horns) and thorns. Chinese jack-in-the-valley (Elaeagnus umbellata) has no ridges and no thorns. However, be aware that other species in the Elaeagnus genus may have thorns.

The flowers are completely different; in the wolfberry, the corolla is pale purple and broadly funnel-shaped, whereas in this species, the flower is pale yellow and the calyx tube, which replaces the corolla, is cylindrical.

The most difficult part is the fruit, and first of all, there is a difference in the fruiting period. Goji berries fruit from August to November, while angelica tree berries fruit from June to July. However, depending on the region and weather, there may be some overlap.

Another difference is that the fruit stalk, the elongated organ that attaches the fruit to the plant, is thick and round at the fruit end in goji berries before abruptly narrowing, whereas in angelica trees it remains consistently thin.

Based on the above, you can definitely distinguish them. Judging them by the shape or color of the fruit would be quite difficult.

If you want to learn how to distinguish between different types of gummy candies, please see our other article.

What are the differences between autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive? Can they be eaten raw? Is the "sparkle" on the leaves to prevent drying? What insects visit the flowers? Are the sweet and sour fruits very popular in nature?

Autumn olive, summer olive, Chinese olive, and white olive are all members of the Elaeagnus genus in the Elaeagnaceae family. They can be found in various locations throughout Japan, including rivers, coastlines, and forests. Their leaves are covered in shimmering stellate or scale-like hairs, and they produce pale yellow flowers consisting only of a cylindrical calyx tube, lacking petals.

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While goji berries can be eaten raw, is eating them raw not so great?

The goji berry is best known for its red berries, and nowadays, it's most familiar to humans as a dried fruit. While it can be eaten fresh, some say it has a "fishy smell, a very bland taste, and a slight bitterness," so it's not very tasty.

In addition, the young shoots in spring and the leaves from summer to autumn are boiled and rinsed in water to be used in salads or blanched dishes, while the raw berries are thoroughly washed and used in tempura, stir-fries, or soups. The fully ripened berries are thoroughly washed and steeped in white liquor to make fruit wine. The leaves and roots are finely chopped and dried to make goji berry tea.

The fruit, root bark, and leaves are also used in traditional Chinese medicine (Shirataka, 2018).

Besides being eaten fresh, the Japanese laurel (Elaeagnus multiflora) is used in jams and other products, as well as to make fruit wine (Elaeagnus multiflora wine). There are various opinions on the taste of eating it fresh, with some saying it is "sweet and sour with a lingering astringency," and others saying it is "almost astringent and sweet enough to be eaten raw." However, the cultivated variety, Elaeagnus macrophylla, is generally considered delicious. Other species of Elaeagnus multiflora, however, are often very sour or bitter and would be difficult to eat without processing.

Are bees primarily attracted to flowers of the nightshade family that have completely different anther shapes?

The flowers of the goji berry are just as vibrant as the fruit, pale purple, and funnel-shaped (Ohashi et al., 2017). They bloom from July to November, from summer to autumn. Although they belong to the same Solanaceae family as eggplants, the shape of their stamens is completely different, with the anthers of the typical form protruding from the outside of the flower.

According to overseas records, this flower is visited by bees, flies, and ants (Paisooksantivatana, 1994), and in Japan, honeybees (Howes, 2015) and red-winged bumblebees (Ikutome, 1992) have also been confirmed. A Google image search also confirmed that a species of bumblebee and a yellow-breasted bumblebee have visited the flower in Japan. There does not seem to be any research yet that has investigated the overall proportion of these species, but it is thought that in Japan, there are many bees that can extend their mouthparts into the funnel-shaped opening.

While pollination in the Solanum genus, including eggplant, is limited to bees capable of vibration pollination, goji berries seem to be able to accommodate a variety of bees. The reason why this method of pollination works is not yet fully understood, but it may be because they have evolved in an environment where there are few insects that steal nectar from outside the flower without carrying pollen, such as bumblebees. However, there are also photographs of bumblebees visiting, so the actual reason remains unclear and research is insufficient.

What are the differences between eggplant and nightshade? What is the origin and evolution of eggplant? Why is nightshade disliked? Does its flower pollinate by vibration? Why are nightshade fruits poisonous?

Both eggplant (Nasu) and nightshade (Nightshade japonica) share the name "eggplant" and have similar flower shapes, so those unfamiliar with them might confuse them. However, eggplant and nightshade are completely different species. Eggplant is a cultivated plant that does not grow wild and has no thorns, while nightshade is a wild plant...

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Do birds and mammals eat goji berries?

What animals in the wild eat goji berries, which can only be enjoyed after being processed by humans?

While this point has not been studied sufficiently, the presence of goji berry seeds carried by birds under persimmon trees suggests that dispersal by birds is a possibility (Takatsuki, 2021).

However, there are also reports that it is being used by raccoons (Takatsuki, 2018).

It's possible that both methods are used, but since it grows in sandy areas near water, bird dispersal might be the primary method. A Chinese study also treats it as bird dispersal (Li et al., 2006).

However, it seems that it is not known which types of birds prefer it.

References

Funakoshi, Ryoji. 2017. 100 Fruit Trees You Can Grow and Eat Yourself: From Familiar Fruits to Popular Berries. Shufunotomo Co., Ltd., Tokyo. 167pp. ISBN: 9784074272013

Hirano, Takahisa. 1997. Tree Guidebook: Understanding the Characteristics and Uses of Trees Found in Gardens, Parks, and Wildlife. Nagaoka Shoten, Tokyo. 319pp. ISBN: 9784522215579

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Source

This article is a significantly expanded version of the one included in the following book.