Recently, bed bugs appeared in my apartment.

Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) are indoor pests belonging to the genus Cimex in the family Cordycepsidae, order Hemiptera. In Japan, they were once nearly extinct after World War II due to the widespread use of effective insecticides, but have begun to increase again since around 2000 due to the ban on the use of DDT and the increase in inbound tourism (Hirao, 2010).

I never imagined that I, someone who works with insects, would be bitten by bed bugs. In a way, it was fortunate that I was able to take many photos of bed bugs (?), but I was bitten 6 to 10 times every night on the backs of my hands, arms, and neck, and on top of that, I became ill and caught a cold, so it was a very painful experience.

Therefore, here I would like to summarize the ecology of bed bugs, along with my personal experience from their initial infestation to eradication, and refer to relevant literature.

In conclusion, there are limits to what you can do to get rid of them yourself, and if you want a quick solution, I think it's best to rely on a pest control company. Even I, who loves cleaning and lives a semi-minimalist lifestyle, felt that way, so I think there are probably no exceptions.

The reason is that while laundry and commercially available insecticides (excluding pyrethroids) are effective, liquid sprays or gaseous fumigations do not spread sufficiently throughout a real house with a lot of clutter, and since insecticides are ineffective against eggs, continuous pest control is necessary after hatching.

Depending on the company, many also use other methods such as high or low temperature insecticide application, sealing gaps, trapping, and visual inspection, resulting in a completely different level of service.

Contrary to what is advertised, the extermination costs are typically over 100,000 yen, which is quite expensive. However, considering the certainty and time saved, I believe it's well worth the payment.

I think self-extermination is only feasible for those who are prepared to fight for a long time.

This article summarizes a real-life experience review of bed bugs, from their discovery to eradication, along with information about their ecology.

The first sign of trouble: From bite marks and symptoms to realizing "it might be bed bugs."

The first physical abnormality I noticed

The first symptoms of bed bugs appeared in mid-April. After visiting a friend's house with a large group of people, I developed slightly itchy red spots around my wrists, and at first I thought it might be due to a viral cold. I had previously developed similar spots from a viral cold, and I actually developed chills and caught a cold afterward, so I was convinced that "this must be a cold caused by being with other people."

This cold lingered for quite a while, with persistent runny nose, cough, and sneezing, and even a loss of taste. Although tests showed it wasn't coronavirus or influenza, it worsened to the point where I developed cough-variant asthma even after recovering.

After recovering from my cold, my health improved somewhat, except for my cough-variant asthma. However, for some reason, the spots on my skin continued to increase rather than subside.

It was at this point that I finally started to think, "Could this possibly be caused by an insect rather than a cold...?"

This was because I had prior knowledge of the issue. During my graduate studies, I heard through someone that there was a lot of talk at the public health center about the increase in bed bugs, and I did some research on it myself.

Just in case, I lifted the mattress I always use and examined the mesh part, and found something very small wriggling. I picked it up with my usual tweezers and examined it with a stereomicroscope... and there it was. It was a bed bug.

I found it and even took a picture so easily, but in reality, it's not that simple.

The media often focuses on the adult form, which is large, brown, and relatively conspicuous. However, the first-instar larva, newly hatched from the egg, is only about 1.5 mm long, and only those with very keen eyesight can spot it against a white background. Most people would simply overlook it.

Even more cleverly, and this is a common characteristic among insects, bed bugs will stop moving when they sense they've been detected by vibrations or other means. Mammals, including humans, find it extremely difficult to spot stationary objects.

Furthermore, since most people don't have tweezers or a stereomicroscope, they probably wouldn't be able to catch a first-instar larva and definitively identify it as a bed bug.

In that respect, I think we were quite fortunate to have discovered it so early.

Most people would be wise to be suspicious based on the symptoms of bite marks.

Characteristics of bite marks and differences from tick bites

In the case of bed bugs, they primarily target the arms, legs, and neck, and unlike fleas, lice, mosquitoes, and ticks, the red bite spots often appear in a straight or zigzag pattern with 3 to 5 spots close together (Akhoundi et al., 2023). This pattern is sometimes called "breakfast, lunch, and dinner." However, since bed bugs are only active at night, this is merely a symbolic name.

There are various theories as to why this pattern occurs, so I will omit them here. For more details, please refer to Doggett et al. (2012).

The spots may become raised or turn into blisters, and the itchiness varies depending on the stage of larval development and individual differences, ranging from an itch as mild as a mosquito bite to an itchiness so severe that you can't help but scratch.

Because I was sleeping in long sleeves and long pants at the time, the area I was bitten in was limited, mainly the back of my hands, wrists, and the front of my neck. If you notice that exposed areas are being bitten regularly every morning, you can strongly suspect bed bugs. However, in my case, even though I was wearing long sleeves, they often managed to burrow into my forearms and up to my elbows and bite me.

Unfortunately, bed bugs are nocturnal and inject an anesthetic when they bite, like mosquitoes, so you rarely notice you've been bitten, and by morning they've hidden away in the shade, leaving almost no trace (Akhoundi et al., 2023).

Humans toss and turn in their sleep at night, and it seems like they could be crushed at any moment, but normally you never see bed bugs being crushed.

This is likely due to their high speed of movement and their extremely flattened shape. As someone who studied biology, I was impressed in a way, thinking, "Evolution is amazing!", but it can also be said that they have some troublesome characteristics.

The bite itself usually heals naturally within one to two weeks without treatment, so there is no need to worry (Akhoundi et al., 2023). There is currently no evidence that they transmit dangerous infections like mosquitoes.

Being bitten is very stressful, but try to stay calm, wash the bite with soap and water, and apply a topical steroid or antihistamine (Akhoundi et al., 2023). Scratching is the worst thing you can do. I didn't have a severe case, so I managed without medication. In Japan, I think it would be something like Lindelon Vs ointment or Muhi.

Ideally, I would recommend going to a hospital for an examination, but even then, there's no guarantee that there will be a doctor who is knowledgeable about bed bugs (Doggett et al., 2012). Ultimately, even if you decide to call a pest control company, you'll need to collect actual insects or take photographs as evidence. If you're unsure, I think it's more reliable to have a pest control company examine it directly rather than going to a hospital.

Where are they hiding in your house? A complete guide to finding bed bugs in your home.

Whether you're trying to get rid of bed bugs yourself or hiring someone to do it, the first step is to find out where the bed bugs are hiding during the day.

Hiding places indicated in the literature

Bed bugs tend to spread mainly in bedrooms because they feed on blood at night.

Studies have shown that within bedrooms, the incubation rates are 85% in beds, 52% in bedding, 37% in baseboards and carpets, 26% in furniture such as lamps and dressing tables, 25% in sofas and chairs, 14% in walls and ceilings, and 6% in clothing (Hirao, 2010).

In severe cases, they may enter electrical outlets, pipes, and air ducts, but this is rare (Delaunay, 2012). While there is a small possibility they could enter electrical appliances, this is usually uncommon and therefore a low priority.

Hiding places that were actually confirmed at home

Ultimately, what I was able to confirm with my own eyes was the inside of the mesh of the folding mattress, the top and middle of the curtain, the corner of the flooring between the mattress and the curtain, and the inside of the bench stool next to the mattress.

In other words, it was only found around the bed, and conversely, I didn't see it around the desk, kitchen, bathroom, or toilet. If I had left it as it was, it would have likely spread to other rooms.

Regarding bathrooms and shower rooms, bed bugs are vulnerable to water and have difficulty climbing on the smooth surfaces, making them less likely to enter (Delaunay, 2012).

First, I think it's best to thoroughly search around your bedding. The larvae are a yellowish-white color, and the adults are brown, so they can be difficult to spot depending on the background color, and the first-instar larvae are very small. Shining your phone's flashlight on them will make them easier to find.

Another sign is what's called bloody feces, which, horribly, can be found in the corners of a room, consisting of feces mixed with your digested blood. Check for this as well.

Bed bugs are related to stink bugs, and when they attack, they emit a sour odor. In severe cases, this odor may linger strongly (Delaunay, 2012).

First aid measures taken: Washing, drying, and cleaning

If you discover bed bugs, the first thing to do as emergency measures is to thoroughly wash, dry, and clean your home. This method has been noted in literature (Hirao, 2010). However, don't expect this to completely eliminate them.

The effects of washing and drying

Regarding washing, it has been confirmed that all adults, larvae, and eggs are killed by washing in 60°C water and tumble drying at 40°C or higher for at least 30 minutes, or by dry cleaning (Hirao, 2010).

This can be done in a home washing machine with a drum-type dryer or at a laundromat. While there is insufficient evidence for using only a dryer, bed bug exterminators recommended running it on a high setting for 40 minutes.

It is said that even regular room-temperature washing is effective against everything except the eggs, and when I washed curtains that couldn't be put in the dryer, I found the dried-up corpses of large bed bugs.

Vacuuming and sun drying in practice

Vacuuming is effective in reducing the number of bed bugs, as it not only sucks them up but also physically kills them with the force of the suction.

It has been confirmed that 97.4% of adult insects die within a week, and the remaining insects all die within eight days. It is also known that 100% of larvae die within one day (Tanaka & Tanaka, 2017).

However, since I only had a Swiffer-type mop, I couldn't expect this effect. I could see with the naked eye that the Swiffer-type mop was wiping away the larvae, but I think it's inferior to suction.

Sun-drying is also effective; it has been found that wrapping them in a black plastic bag and turning them over so that both sides are exposed to the sun can kill insects by reaching temperatures above 80°C, although this is quite a time-consuming process.

Attempting to exterminate pests yourself: The effectiveness and limitations of insecticide sprays.

However, simply washing, drying, and cleaning has its limits. In fact, it didn't make them go away.

So, although I was hesitant to use it if possible, I decided to try it out and used insecticide.

Ingredients and effects of commercially available insecticides

There are four types of active ingredients in commercially available insecticides used for bed bugs: pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, and metadiamides (brofranilide).

However, even if major pyrethroid-based insecticides are labeled "effective against bed bugs!", they have little effect on bed bugs today. Specifically, this includes products like LEC's "Balsan One Touch Smoke Type" and Earth Pharmaceutical's "Medicinal Bed Bug Cockroach Earth."

The bed bugs that have reinvaded Japan have developed resistance to pyrethroid insecticides and are a population known as "super bed bugs." It's like a monstrous evolution, reminiscent of Doma from Demon Slayer, but such evolution actually occurs in many insects. It's an ability gained through the sacrifice of countless corpses, and is the result of natural selection (or artificial selection).

Actual experiments have shown that pyrethroid-based fumigants have a mortality rate of less than 30% even after 72 hours, and spray formulations have a mortality rate of less than 60% (Kurashima, 2024).

Organophosphates and carbamates have traditionally been effective, with a 100% eradication rate reported after three weeks (Muto, 2015).

However, bed bugs that have developed resistance to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides have now been identified both domestically and internationally, and it has been pointed out that these insecticides may become ineffective in the future (Suga, 2022). They may still be effective in 2026, but their effectiveness may decrease year by year.

Broflanilide is a new drug and can be used without problems for the time being. One study showed an eradication rate of 95% or higher after two weeks (Kurashima, 2024).

Therefore, always check the active ingredients on the label before purchasing insecticide. Many people are buying pyrethroid-based insecticides and suffering because they are ineffective.

The product I used this time was Earth Pharmaceutical's "Zerono Night Cockroach and Bed Bug Spray, 1-Push Type, 60 Uses".

This product contains broflanilide (brand name: Tenevenal) as its active ingredient.

I used this product for about a week, spraying three times into the air daily and three times on the areas where I had previously found bed bugs. The manufacturer recommends using less, so please proceed at your own risk.

As a result, I started seeing about 3 to 5 bed bugs in a near-death state every day. I think it played a role in steadily reducing their numbers.

While cleaning further, I discovered an adult insect in a near-death state, which is likely the parent of all the larvae that had entered the room!

While cleaning, I found several first-instar larvae on the quick wiper. Since wiping will wipe away the insecticide, be sure to spray it again after cleaning.

Other options include LEC's "Balsan Ambush Spray" (carbamate-based) and Earth Pharmaceutical's "Zerononight G Cockroach and Bed Bug Fumigation Agent for 6-8 Tatami Mats" (broflanilide). I haven't tried these myself, so they might be better depending on the situation.

Precautions when using insecticides

However, these drugs are not without risk to humans. Although it is unlikely to be these drugs, there have been deaths from bed bug pesticides overseas (Laborde-Castérot et al., 2024), and while these drugs are currently used after testing and deemed safe, there is no knowledge of long-term exposure, and the future is uncertain.

The insecticide DDT was once considered harmless and was misused as a "miracle drug." Bed bugs also saw a decline in numbers due to DDT (Akhoundi et al., 2023), and were nearly extinct in Japan. However, DDT has now been confirmed to be carcinogenic and is no longer used except in a very limited number of regions (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003).

Remember that no medicine is completely harmless, and use it in moderation.

But it still doesn't go away... The recurrence revealed the "pitfalls of amateur pest control."

I combined several possible control methods, but to put it simply, I couldn't eradicate them on my own in about two weeks. Even after using insecticides, I continued to get bitten in multiple places every day.

There could be several possible causes.

The problem recurs after evacuating to a different location.

First, while washing and drying clothes and cleaning can reduce their numbers, if these aren't done simultaneously, bed bugs that have fled to another location will return to the same spot.

I actually washed my curtains and sheer curtains once, but after a while I started seeing bed bugs on them again. I couldn't dry them at a high temperature, so it's possible that eggs remained.

It's possible to get it to last if you wash it many times, but it requires a lot of patience.

Furthermore, there are parts that are impossible to wash, dry, or clean, no matter how hard you try, such as the inside of a mattress or an air conditioner. If they take refuge in those areas, there's nothing we can do.

Prolonged duration due to house structure and mass egg-laying

Regarding insecticides, the aforementioned claim of 100% eradication is merely the result of experiments. In reality, houses have complex layouts, and with a lot of furniture and other items, there are many gaps through which insects can enter, so they may not penetrate rooms so easily.

Furthermore, since people typically clean their homes frequently, the chemicals are wiped away. In fact, there is even a theory that the chemicals might be more effective in a dirty room (Kurashima, 2024).

Furthermore, the concentration of commercially available medications may be too low.

More importantly, these insecticides, which act on the insect nervous system, have virtually no effect on eggs that are immobile and protected by their shells. Experiments have shown that even when various insecticides are sprayed directly on the eggs, the survival rate exceeds 80% (Hinson et al., 2016).

Furthermore, a female bed bug lays an average of 131.9 to 155.7 eggs in her lifetime (Polanco et al., 2011c). Another study suggests 200 to 500 eggs (Akhoundi et al., 2023). She doesn't lay all of these eggs at once, but rather a few at a time after each blood-feeding, laying about five eggs per day.

Therefore, if, like me, the adult insects lay eggs in your room, even if the medication is effective against the hatched individuals, a long battle is inevitable.

I learned about professional pest control methods and typical costs by consulting with a pest control company.

Based on these results, I decided to hire a pest control company (extermination service).

The reason I decided to hire a professional was that, although the insecticide spray was effective, I felt it would prevent the situation from escalating and that I couldn't be sure it would completely eradicate the problem.

But the biggest deciding factor was when my parents told me, "We have pets, so please don't come back home until the bed bugs are gone" (laughs).

Bed bugs also opportunistically feed on the blood of pets. In other words, although it is not their primary food source like human blood, there is clear evidence that they feed on the blood of dogs, cats, rabbits, and birds such as chickens when the opportunity arises (Black et al., 2021).

I was originally supposed to attend a memorial service at my parents' house, but I couldn't go because of bed bugs. When I think about the risk of spreading bed bugs to other people and causing them trouble in the future, I think it was the right decision to hire a professional exterminator.

Costs and scope of work revealed in the estimate

I think it's best to get quotes from several companies. I requested quotes from two companies, a large corporation and a small to medium-sized enterprise.

While the large company responded quickly to my email, they provided an estimate without actually coming to my house to inspect the condition. In contrast, the small company came to my house the same day, inspected the condition, and prepared an estimate. As a result, although the small company's initial estimate was higher, I decided to go with them.

I want to believe that bed bug extermination is unlikely to be a complete failure, but I think it's worth considering not only the price, but also whether they are quick to act rather than just talk, whether they can actually find first-instar larvae in your home, and whether they advertise themselves as being good at bed bug extermination as well as general pest control.

While some companies advertise prices online as starting from 40,000 yen for a single-person apartment, you will almost certainly not get paid that price.

This is because a second extermination is almost certainly carried out two weeks after the first. This is a standard extermination method because, as mentioned above, the pesticide is ineffective while the eggs are still in the egg stage, so treatment is necessary after the eggs have hatched (Campbell & Miller, 2017). It takes 4 to 12 days for the eggs to hatch (Akhoundi et al., 2023). You should be wary of any company that doesn't follow this procedure.

It might seem like a gray-area advertisement that misleads customers, but even ordinary businesses do this (probably due to price competition), so it's probably best not to judge a business's quality based solely on its price.

I ultimately paid around 140,000 yen for the extermination, including the guarantee, but if you live alone, the price might be a bit lower. However, I compromised because I wanted it done quickly. In any case, I think it's guaranteed to cost over 100,000 yen.

Differences in pest control methods among different companies

Pest control methods vary from company to company. Some use only chemicals, while others combine various methods. If a company offers a guarantee period, any choice should be fine, but if you are hesitant about the use of chemicals, a company that advertises using minimal chemicals might be a better option.

The following are typical pest control methods used by pest control companies.

• Heat treatment: Kill insects with high-temperature steam.
• Cooling treatment: Kill insects with dry ice or similar methods.
• Vacuum treatment: Use a powerful vacuum cleaner to suck up the bed bugs.
• Chemical treatment: Applying chemicals. This often involves not only fumigation or spraying, but also applying liquids to the corners of the room.
• Sealing treatment: Seal small gaps in the corners of the room with a hardening resin.
• Capture and treatment: Place bed bug traps (bed bug traps) in the corners of the room to directly capture and kill them and prevent re-infestation.

Warranty periods vary from company to company, but they are often 3 months, 6 months, or 1 year from the second application.

Considering the life cycle of bed bugs, it takes 4 to 12 days for eggs to hatch (Akhoundi et al., 2023), and about 1.2 to 1.3 months for them to develop from egg to adult (Polanco et al., 2011a). Their life cycle is 2 months (Izri et al., 2020), so theoretically, 3 months might be sufficient.

However, there's always a possibility that they could be brought in from outside, or hidden in household items and accidentally emerge, stinging you again a few months later, so six months might be a safer timeframe.

Bed bugs are often said to be able to survive for over a year without feeding on blood on the internet, but one study showed that first-instar larvae live for an average of 13.8–36.3 days, and fifth-instar larvae and adults live for an average of 41.5–142.6 days, suggesting that this claim might be an exaggeration (Polanco et al., 2011b). Another study yielded similar results (Akhoundi et al., 2023).

If we take these numbers at face value, it seems unlikely that it will appear for at least six months.

The process leading up to the day of the pest control service and the number of days it took for complete eradication.

I think they can start the work within a few days. In my case, they inspected the site on the same day as my initial contact, and performed the first extermination five days later. I scheduled the second extermination two weeks later. So, it took 19 days from the initial contact to complete extermination, but I stopped getting bitten six days after the first extermination.

Preparation before construction

There may be things you need to do yourself before the day the contractor arrives.

In a common scenario, household items, excluding large furniture and appliances, must be bagged. This is to isolate bed bugs from the room. Bed bugs are thought to be unable to climb smooth plastic bags.

However, bed bugs are said to be able to break through thin plastic and get out, so you will need thick 30L or 45L transparent plastic bags that are at least 0.04mm thick. This task is quite difficult; it's almost like moving house.

These plastic bags aren't usually found in regular supermarkets, but you might be able to buy them at home improvement stores. I bought a pack of 30 45L transparent heavy-duty garbage bags (0.05mm thick) at Kohnan, but if you're willing to pay an extra fee, the service provider can provide them, so that's fine if you don't want to think about it too much. Some service providers might even include them in their plans from the start.

These bags cannot be returned until the second treatment, two weeks later, completes the extermination process. Therefore, be prepared to live with the bags for at least two weeks.

Furthermore, customers were encouraged to use coin laundries or dry cleaning services for clothing that can be washed and dried.

From here on, the methods used by the company I hired may differ depending on the company.

Details of the first and second construction phases

For the first treatment, the person in charge went out, and the aforementioned chemicals were applied and sprayed throughout the room, and gaps were sealed. I was told it would take about half a day, but in my case, since the room was small, it was finished in about 3 hours. That's the speed of a professional!

Backpacks and bags used when going out are also subject to pest control, but these were visually inspected and treated with insecticide. Bags containing frequently used items were also treated with insecticide at that time.

On the first night after the treatment, I felt like I was still being bitten in a few places, but when I returned home the following evening, I found three dead insects. I think the insecticide applied to the corners of the room had worked. I haven't been bitten since then.

For the second treatment, if bed bugs remain in the room, the work will be performed in the same room as the first treatment, but the bags will also be checked to ensure that no bed bugs remain.

I haven't had the second treatment done yet, so I'll report back once it's completed.

Measures to prevent recurrence and ensure it never happens again

Possible entry points

I still don't fully understand why bed bugs have appeared in my house.

Since bed bugs do not reproduce asexually, they must mate, making it unlikely that a single larva would enter a house and reproduce. The most likely scenario is that a mated adult bed bug entered the house.

I've only been able to find one female adult at home, so this is the pattern I'm considering for now. I started experiencing stinging symptoms around May, but the exterminator suggested that the insects probably entered the house around December.

However, there are many possible entry points, and we are unable to pinpoint a specific one.

Generally, outbreaks have been reported in all forms of accommodation and transportation, including hotels, trains, airplanes, and ships (Delaunay, 2012).

In my case, there are two possible scenarios.

One possibility is that I brought bed bugs back with me from my travel destination. I'm quite comfortable in small spaces, so I often use capsule hotels when traveling alone. However, there are many international tourists due to the inbound tourism trend, and I was careless, so adult bed bugs may have gotten into my backpack or jacket. I was staying at a capsule hotel in Tokyo around January. Checking the 'Bed Bugs Map Japan', it seems that there was a bed bug infestation there about two years ago.

Another possibility is that they got mixed in with a package. Because of my job, I have specimen samples sent to my home in cardboard boxes, and I also frequently make purchases online from Amazon and other retailers, so it's possible that adult bed bugs got mixed in with one of those packages.

Hotel and luggage measures

Are there any preventative measures that individuals can take? Regarding hotels, the following methods have been suggested in research (Delaunay, 2012; Hentley, et al., 2017).

• Upon arrival, use a flashlight to quickly check the bedding area, and if you find any suspicious signs, do not use that room.
  • Check the seams and piping of the mattress.
  • Check the corners of the bed frame.
  • Check the top of the curtain.
  • Check the gaps between pillows and sofas.
  • Black spots (blood and feces), bloodstains, eggs, and larvae were observed.
  • Since bed bugs are related to stink bugs, they emit a sour smell, so check for a strong odor.
• Place your belongings away from the bed (such as in the bathroom). Bed bugs are less likely to enter bathrooms and shower rooms because they are slippery, difficult to climb, and are vulnerable to water. If there are no other options, place them on a chair or similar object in the center of the room, away from the walls.
• Seal your belongings in a large plastic bag. Smooth plastic bags make it difficult for bed bugs to climb.
• For exposed skin, use mosquito repellent spray containing DEET. In Japan, examples include Earth Pharmaceutical's "Saratect."
• Sleep with clothes on. You're less likely to get bitten through fabric.
• Store your pajamas in a separate plastic bag.
• Don't leave worn clothes lying around. Experiments have shown that soiled clothing absorbs human odors, attracting bed bugs and providing them with a "foothold" for movement. Put clothes you've taken off into a plastic bag immediately.
• Upon returning home, immediately do the laundry, and wash or dry any suspected clothing at a high temperature. As mentioned above, this will kill the insects, including the eggs.
• Don't bring your suitcase straight into the house. Wash it in the bathroom if possible.

Another option is to avoid hotels that have a history of bed bug infestations. 'Bed Bugs Map Japan' compiles evidence-based bed bug sighting records on Google Maps (Bed Bugs Map Japan, 2026). While this may be helpful, along with the hotel's attitude towards bed bugs, it should only be used as a reference; there's still a good chance bed bugs could be found in hotels not listed.

However, even considering all of the above, I think it's difficult to implement a perfect intrusion prevention measure. While some hotels will properly exterminate the pests, there are also cases where they turn a blind eye, so a societal approach may be necessary.

The current price range for bed bug extermination makes it difficult for low-income individuals to afford it, which could lead to the spread of the infestation.

Once they get into your house, cleaning alone won't prevent them from breeding. I have very few possessions and I clean fairly often because I like it, but they still breed in my house.

Summary: Early detection and correct diagnosis are key when it comes to bed bugs.

Naturally, bed bugs grow the more blood they suck.

If left unattended, a single female can lay approximately 5 eggs per day, averaging 131.9 to 155.7 eggs in a room, and if it's in your own private room, these offspring will be raised solely on your blood.

These insects will never disappear even if left unchecked; in fact, they can even inbreed, allowing the next generation to grow (Fountain et al., 2014). Studies have shown that colonies can be founded by a single adult female, and that their genetic diversity is extremely low.

If there is no pest control and the population has a normal food supply, the number of eggs and larvae will increase exponentially. Even under the harsh assumption of starvation where females do not lay eggs daily, simulations show that the population doubles every 13 days (Polanco et al., 2011a).

At first, you might dismiss it as something like a mosquito bite, but once they grow into adults, their numbers multiply exponentially (like rats), and it becomes impossible to control.

Let's take some measures before that happens.

The best option is to hire a reputable pest control company, but if that's not possible, be sure to use multiple methods, such as washing and drying clothes, using a vacuum cleaner, and using insecticides other than pyrethroids.

I hope this article will be of some help to those suffering from bed bug infestations.

References

Akhoundi, M., Zumelzu, C., Sereno, D., Marteau, A., Brun, S., Jan, J., & Izri, A. (2023). Bed bugs (Hemiptera, Cimicidae): a global challenge for public health and control management. Diagnostics, 13 (13), 2281. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13132281

Bed Bugs Map Japan. (2026, May 17). Bed Bugs Map Japan. https://bedbugsmapjapan.com/

Black, MK, Chandler, JG, Trout Fryxell, RT, & Vail, KM (2021). The Common Bed Bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) Does Not Commonly Use Canines and Felines as a Host in Low-Income, High-Rise Apartments. Journal of Medical Entomology, 58 (6), 2040-2046. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjab070

Campbell, BE, & Miller, DM (2017). A method for evaluating insecticide efficacy against bed bug, Cimex lectularius, eggs and first instars. Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE, 121, 55092. https://doi.org/10.3791/55092

Delaunay, P. (2012). Human travel and traveling bedbugs. Journal of Travel Medicine, 19 (6), 373-379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1708-8305.2012.00653.x

Doggett, SL, Dwyer, DE, Peñas, PF, & Russell, RC (2012). Bed bugs: clinical relevance and control options. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 25 (1), 164-192. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.05015-11

Fountain, T., Duvaux, L., Horsburgh, G., Reinhardt, K., & Butlin, RK (2014). Human-facilitated metapopulation dynamics in an emerging pest species, Cimex lectularius. Molecular Ecology, 23 (5), 1071-1084. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12673

Hentley, WT, Webster, B., Evison, SE, & Siva-Jothy, MT (2017). Bed bug aggregation on dirty laundry: a mechanism for passive dispersal. Scientific Reports, 7 (1), 11668. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11850-5

Hinson, KR, Benson, EP, Zungoli, PA, Bridges Jr, WC, & Ellis, BR (2016). Egg Hatch Rate and Nymphal Survival of the Bed Bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) After Exposure toInsecticide Sprays. Journal of Economic Entomology, 109 (6), 2495-2499. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tow223

Hirao, Soichi. (2010). The resurgence of bed bugs and the current status of control efforts. Journal of Sanitary Zoology, 61 (3), 211-221. https://doi.org/10.7601/mez.61.211

Izri, A., & Parola, P. (2020). Bedbugs. New England Journal of Medicine, 382 (23), 2230-2237. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp1905840

Sugama, Toru. (2022). Search for novel insecticidal components against organophosphate-resistant bed bugs. Bulletin of the Japan Environmental Sanitation Center, 49, 4. ISSN: 0389-0805, https://www.jesc.or.jp/Portals/0/center/library/shoho/2021shoho4.pdf

Komagata, Osamu. (2024). Basic characteristics of bed bugs. Life and Environment, 69 (2), 4-8. https://www.jesc.or.jp/Portals/0/center/library/seikatsutokankyo/202403_Komagata.pdf

Komatsu, Kenji & Nakamura, Harumi. (2023). Survey of the habitat of tropical bed bugs and other bed bugs in Japan from 2019 to 2021. Journal of Sanitary Zoology, 74(4), 157-160. https://doi.org/10.7601/mez.74.157

Kurashima, Yuki. (2024). Practical evaluation of the novel insecticide component brofuranilide against bed bugs. Insecticide Research Group Handbook, 94, 10-16. https://www.jsmez.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/2024_94.pdf

Laborde-Castérot, H., Vodovar, D., Ortiz De Zevallos, A., Caré, W., Nisse, P., Bargel, S., … & Langrand, J. (2024). Trends in poisoning associated with the use of insecticides for bed bug infestations: a 20-year retrospective study in France. Scientific Reports, 14 (1), 16868. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67727-x

Le Couteur, PC, & Burreson, J. (2003). Napoleon's buttons: How 17 molecules changed history. Tarcher. ISBN: 9781585422203 [=(2011). Spices, explosives, pharmaceuticals—17 chemicals that changed world history. Chuokoron-Shinsha. ISBN: 9784120043079]

Muto, Atsuhiko. (2015). Bed bugs and their effective control methods. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/10900000/001332555.pdf

Polanco, AM, Brewster, CC, & Miller, DM (2011a). Population growth potential of the bed bug, Cimex lectularius L.: a life table analysis. Insects, 2 (2), 173-185. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects2020173

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Tanaka, Toyokazu & Tanaka, Toshio. (2017). Insecticidal effects on bed bug bodies and eggs by vacuum cleaners and dry ice treatment. Pestology, 32 (2), 63-67. https://doi.org/10.24486/pestology.32.2_63

Akebia, Akebia trifoliata, Akebia quinata, and Stauntonia hexaphylla all belong to the Akebia family. They are climbing plants with palmately compound leaves, and a key characteristic is that male and female flowers bloom separately. Akebia and Akebia trifoliata are particularly famous for the edible white, gelatinous pulp inside their fruits. While they are associated with nostalgic rural flavors from childhood memories, few people may be able to distinguish between them. They can basically be distinguished by the shape of their leaves, and differences also appear in the shape of their flowers and the degree to which their fruits dehisce. Cross-pollination by insects is essential for their flowers, and it is known that the size difference between male and female flowers is a strategic feature. Seed dispersal is also interesting, as they rely on a variety of animals, including mammals, birds, and ants. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and ecology of the Akebia family.

What are Akebia, Mitsuba Akebia, Goyou Akebia, and Mube?

Akebia quinata, also known as Akebia quinata, is a deciduous climbing woody plant commonly found in the forest edges of hills and mountains, distributed across Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; the Korean Peninsula; and China. Its Japanese name is said to derive from the fact that its fruit splits open.

Akebia trifoliata subsp. trifoliata, also known as three-leaved akebia, is a deciduous climbing woody plant commonly found in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in China, growing at the edges of forests in hilly and mountainous areas.

Akebia x pentaphylla, also known as five-leaved akebia, is a natural hybrid of Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata, and is a deciduous climbing woody plant that is rarely found in areas where Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata grow together.

Stauntonia hexaphylla, also known as Tokiwaakebi, is a deciduous climbing woody plant distributed in Honshu (south of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; the Korean Peninsula; and China. It grows in forest edges and is often planted as a hedge in parks and private homes. Makino suggests that the origin of the Japanese name comes from the fact that its fruit was offered to the imperial court, hence the name Ohonihe (大供) became Ohomube (苞苴), and then Mube (Kato and Nakamura, 1971). However, the basis for this argument is unclear.

All of these plants belong to the Akebia family, are climbing plants, have palmately compound leaves, and are monoecious, but a key characteristic is that their flowers are unisexual, meaning that male flowers grow separately.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #121] What are the species of the Akebia family? Photo list

The Lardizabalaceae family consists mainly of climbing woody plants, with shrubs being rare. The leaves are trifoliate or palmately compound with five leaflets. The flowers are unisexual, monoecious, and borne in racemes, radially symmetrical and trimeral. The sepals are petal-like. The fruit is an ellipsoidal berry with a fleshy pericarp. (Eastern Asia…)

ecological-information.com

Of the four species, three, excluding Stauntonia hexaphylla, belong to the genus Akebia. Their most distinctive feature is that when ripe, their fruit splits open, exposing a liquid, fleshy interior.

This fruit is unique, and its name varies depending on the source. Although it is a "follicle (a fruit consisting of one carpel that dehisces along the internal or external suture)" (Shimizu, 2001), it is sometimes called a "berry" because its interior is a liquid that animals can eat (Mogi et al., 2000). Since 3 to 5 fruits can sometimes be clustered together, in this case it is called an "aggregate fruit," and is sometimes referred to as an "aggregate follicle" or "aggregate berry."

In Japan, there has been a long-standing tradition of eating this fruit, and it is associated with people's memories of the taste of the countryside from their childhood. There are also cultivated varieties of Akebia trifoliata, which are sometimes sold commercially.

However, several closely related species are known, and all of them are edible, so perhaps few people can correctly distinguish between them.

In particular, Akebia trifoliata has compound leaves with five leaflets, but Akebia quinata also has five leaflets, which can be confusing. Some companies even sell Akebia quinata as "Akebia trifoliata with five leaflets."

What are the differences between Akebia, Mitsuba Akebia, Goyou Akebia, and Mube?

As a fundamental point, Akebia quinata, Akebia trifoliata, and Akebia quinata belong to the Akebia genus, while Stauntonia hexaphylla belongs to the Stauntonia genus (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Therefore, there is a significant difference in form.

In Akebia, Akebia trifoliata, and Akebia quinata, the leaves are deciduous, the sepals are three cup-shaped, the stamens are six and free, and the fruit dehisces, whereas in Stauntonia hexaphylla, it is evergreen, the sepals are six in number (three outer ones are lanceolate and three inner ones are linear), the stamens are six and fused, and the fruit does not dehisce.

While there are many factors to consider, the biggest difference is whether the plant is deciduous or evergreen. In other words, Akebia, Akebia trifoliata, and Akebia quinata lose their leaves in winter, resulting in soft, thin, light green leaves, while Stauntonia hexaphylla retains its leaves even in winter, giving it sturdy, hard, dark green leaves. This can be observed by examining the leaves.

Another easily noticeable difference, even just looking at the leaves, is that in Stauntonia hexaphylla, the veins are prominent on both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves, and the number of leaflets can range from three in young trees to five to seven in mature trees. These features are entirely unique to Stauntonia hexaphylla and are not found in the Akebia genus.

It's easy to mistakenly think that Akebia plants have multiple leaves, but these are palmate compound leaves, meaning that what was originally a single leaf has divided into 3 to 7 leaflets. These divided parts that look like a single leaf are called "leaflets."

Another point to note is that while botanical guides state that the fruit of Stauntonia hexaphylla does not split open, actual photographs show that it does split open slightly, though not as much as in the Akebia genus.

Of the remaining three species, Akebia trifoliata is a hybrid of Akebia quinata and Akebia quinata, and therefore exhibits intermediate characteristics (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018; Yoshizawa and Arase, 2024; Hayashi, 2025).

Focusing on the number of leaflets, Akebia and Akebia trifoliata usually have five leaflets, while Akebia quinata has only three. This difference is reflected in its Japanese name.

However, since Akebia quinata can occasionally have 3 to 4 leaflets, you need to check for multiple leaflets.

If we focus on the serrations of the leaflets, we can see that while Akebia trifoliata and Akebia quinata usually have serrations, Akebia quinata does not.

However, this is also Akebia quinata, and some of the current year's branches in the upper layers lack serrations, so it is necessary to check multiple leaves.

Focusing on the flowers, in Akebia quinata, the male flowers are sparsely arranged and the sepals are pale purple, while the female flowers have long stalks and protrude from the male inflorescence. In contrast, in Akebia trifoliata and Akebia quinata, the male flowers are densely arranged and the sepals are dark reddish-purple, while the female flowers have somewhat shorter stalks and do not protrude from the male inflorescence.

Based on the above, I believe you can definitely distinguish between the four types.

What are the differences in how Akebia, Mitsuba Akebia, Goyou Akebia, and Mube are used?

The main use of Akebia and Mitsuba Akebia is, of course, for their sweet fruit. The fruit ripens in the autumn (around September to October).

In addition to consuming the wild fruit, there are also cultivated varieties of Akebia trifoliata for fruit production (Matsumoto et al, 2022; Yoshizawa & Arase, 2024).

The fruit consists of a pericarp and a white pulp (placenta) that encloses the black seeds, and this pulp is edible (Fruit Tree Horticulture Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Yamagata University, 2020).

The typical way to eat it is to pick the fruit, eat the white gelatinous substance (placenta) as is, taste the flesh, and then spit out the seeds inside.

In rural areas, it has long been a popular snack for children playing in the mountains, and it is sometimes described as a "rare fruit that evokes nostalgia," adding color to fond childhood memories (Yoshizawa & Arase, 2024).

The fruit is sweet and juicy, and rich in nutrients such as sugars, proteins, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals (Huang et al., 2022).

Grapes are highly regarded nutritionally, containing a high amount of various vitamins such as beta-carotene, vitamin B, and vitamin C (108-930 mg/100 g), which is higher than apples, grapes, and bananas. They are also rich in minerals such as potassium (3.2-4.9 mg/g), magnesium (1.00-1.51 mg/g), and calcium (0.47-0.49 mg/g), as well as amino acids, including all eight essential amino acids.

The peel became a topic of discussion when YouTuber Hikakin, not knowing how to eat it, discarded the flesh and ate the peel raw, describing it as bitter and unpleasant (J-CAST News Entertainment Team, 2025). However, it is not edible raw.

However, the peel can also be eaten after being boiled or stir-fried, and dishes such as "stir-fried akebi peel with miso" are known (Fruit Tree Horticulture Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Yamagata University, 2020).

The young shoots can be used in dishes such as blanched greens, salads, soups, and stir-fries (Takahashi, 2003). In the Tohoku region, the young shoots of Akebia trifoliata are called "kinome" (tree buds) because they contain less bitterness than Akebia quinata, and were used in "kinome-meshi" (tree bud rice).

In addition to being cultivated for ornamental purposes in horticulture (Huang et al., 2022), the outer bark of the thick vine stems is removed and sun-dried, and this is called "Mokutsu," which has been used as a herbal medicine effective against nephritis, urethritis, and cystitis due to its diuretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, cardiac stimulant, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties (Maciąg et al., 2021).

Akebia quinata does not produce fruit, so it is not used for food.

While the fruit of the Stauntonia hexaphylla is edible, it is small and does not split open completely, making it difficult to eat, and therefore it is rarely found in the market.

However, Makino suggests that the origin of the Japanese name is that the fruit was offered to the imperial court, and that this was called "Ōhonihe" (大供), which became "Ōmube" (苞苴), and then "Mube" (Kato and Nakamura, 1971). There is also a theory that when Emperor Tenji was presented with it, he replied, "Mube naru kana" (meaning "That is indeed true"). The veracity of these claims is quite questionable, but it seems certain that Mube was used in ancient times (Wano, 2015).

How did pollination work? Was it to deceive insects with large female flowers?!

The shape of the flowers differs greatly between the Akebia and Stauntonia genera (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

In the Akebia genus, the flowering period is in spring, from April to May. Male flowers are numerous and borne at the tip of the inflorescence, with short filaments that curve inward in an arching shape, forming a spherical cluster. Female flowers are larger than male flowers, borne in small numbers at the base of the inflorescence, and have 3 to 9 oblong carpels that spread outwards. What appear to be three petals are actually modified sepals.

It has a strong scent and is sometimes called "the flower with the fragrance of chocolate" in Europe and America.

What kinds of insects visit this flower? Akebia species are self-compatible and cannot produce fruit without pollen from other individuals.

Studies on Akebia have shown that the main pollinating insects are small, solitary wasps (non-caste wasps) such as Lasioglossum sp., hoverflies Epistrophe balteata (Syrphidae), and Japanese honeybees Apis cerana japonica (Apidae) (Kawagoe & Suzuki, 2002).

While there is insufficient research on Akebia trifoliata, some believe it may be similar to Akebia quinata (Matsumoto et al, 2022). However, there are morphological differences, such as the male flowers of Akebia trifoliata being darker in color, so it has not been verified whether they are truly the same.

While the Japanese akebia (Akebia quinata) produces flowers, it does not produce fruit, so it cannot reproduce.

By the way, there's a curious difference between the male and female flowers of the Akebia genus. The female flowers are noticeably larger and more conspicuous than the male flowers. Why is this?

This is thought to be "intersexual mimicry," where female flowers mimic male flowers (Kawagoe & Suzuki, 2002; 2003). In other words, since female flowers have no stamens, they naturally have no pollen and offer no reward to pollinators, but they grow larger than male flowers to appear more attractive to pollinators in order to deceive insects into thinking "there's food here!"

Furthermore, especially in solitary bees, they will visit the more attractive-looking female flowers before moving on to the male flowers. This prevents self-pollination within the same individual by preventing pollen from the male flowers from touching the stigma of the female flowers, thus promoting cross-pollination.

As mentioned above, Akebia is self-incompatible, so this cross-pollination is thought to be for the purpose of avoiding reproductive interference (by its own pollen), rather than suppressing inbreeding (preventing inbreeding depression) (Kawagoe & Suzuki, 2005).

Surprisingly, however, hoverflies can distinguish between male and female flowers and only visit the male flowers, resulting in a situation where they steal nectar.

On the other hand, Stauntonia hexaphylla flowers in spring, from April to May, producing short racemes from the leaf axils. These inflorescences have 6 sepals and bear 3 to 7 pale yellow flowers that face downwards and have a single reddish-purple stripe on the inside (Mogi et al., 2000). There are no significant differences between male and female flowers except for the stamens and pistils.

Despite having the exact same flowering period, the reason why the male and female Stauntonia hexaphylla are identical in appearance remains unknown, unfortunately due to insufficient research on pollinating insects.

The facts above confirm that wild insects (mainly bees) produce delicious akebi fruit, both wild and cultivated. This kind of benefit is called an "ecosystem service," so if you want to eat delicious akebi, please take an interest not only in the akebi itself, but also in the natural environment that supports these insects.

How did they disperse their seeds? They used all sorts of methods: mammals, birds, ants, you name it!?

As mentioned above, the fruits of the Akebia family ripen in the autumn and are "follicles" that split open or crack, but are also called "berries" because the inside is a liquid that animals can eat.

The thick rind changes from green to red to purple as it ripens, and when it splits open, the inside is exposed, revealing black seeds encased in a white, gelatinous placenta.

Fruits that are clearly large and would be considered tasty for humans are likely to be dispersed by animal means, particularly by mammals.

In fact, the fruit of Akebia has been used by martens and raccoons (Takatsuki, 2017; 2018), and there are records of the fruit of Akebia trifoliata being used by martens, raccoons, and Japanese macaques (Takatsuki, 2017; Kumagai and Saito, 2022; Otani, 2005).

The fruits of the Stauntonia hexaphylla are also used by martens and raccoons (Takatsuki, 2017; 2019).

The slimy seed coat is thought to be adapted to slip through the teeth of animals (Okamoto, 1999).

However, there are also records of an increase in seedlings of Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata within goldenrod communities (Karasawa, 1978). This suggests that birds may be contributing to seed dispersal of Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata.

Generally, red fruits are only visible to birds and monkeys with well-developed color vision, so considering this point, it is plausible that seeds are dispersed by both mammals and birds.

Furthermore, the seeds of Akebia and Akebia trifoliata have elaiosomes. This indicates that these are parts that ants eat, and that after being eaten by animals, the seeds are excreted in their feces and then dispersed again by ants, thus contributing to ant dispersal (Nakanishi, 1988).

In the field, there have been observations of brown ants gathering around the seeds (Kusui & Kusui, 1999). In experiments where seeds were placed directly near ant nests, black garden ants and brown ants carried them away (Fujii et al., 2012).

However, unlike Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata, Stauntonia hexaphylla does not have elaiosomes (Kusui & Kusui, 1999).

References

Huang, P., Zang, F., Li, C., Lin, F., Zang, D., Li, B., & Zheng, Y. (2022). The Akebia genus as a novel forest crop: A review of its genetic resources, nutritional components, biosynthesis, and biological studies. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, 936571. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.936571

Fujii, Mari; Kosaka, Ayumi; and Masui, Keiji. (2012). Plants that rely on ants to disperse their seeds. Kyosei no Hiroba, 7, 63-68. ISSN: 1881-2147, https://www.hitohaku.jp/publication/book/kyousei7_063.pdf

J-Cast News Editorial Department, Entertainment Team. (February 6, 2025). Hikakin, who caused a controversy 8 and a half years ago, immediately apologizes... and looks back on it with laughter: "Why did I have to apologize...?" He reveals his true feelings. J-Cast News. https://www.j-cast.com/2025/02/06501301.html

Karasawa, Koichi. (1978). A study on the diet and seed dispersal of fruit-eating birds in urban areas. Birds, 27 (1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3838/jjo1915.27.1

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. (2018). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 Electronic Edition. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kato, Kaname & Nakamura, Tsuneo. (1971). Yama-kei Color Guide: Flowering Trees 1. Yama-kei Publishers.

Kawagoe, T., & Suzuki, N. (2002). Floral sexual dimorphism and flower choice by pollinators in a nectarless monoecious vine Akebia quinata (Lardizabalaceae). Ecological Research, 17 (3), 295-303. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1703.2002.00489.x

Kawagoe, T., & Suzuki, N. (2003). Flower-size dimorphism avoids geitonogamous pollination in a nectarless monoecious plant Akebia quinata. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 164 (6), 893-897. https://doi.org/10.1086/378659

Kawagoe, T., & Suzuki, N. (2005). Self-pollen on a stigma interferes with outcrossed seed production in a self-incompatible monoecious plant, Akebia quinata (Lardizabalaceae). Functional Ecology, 19 (1), 49-54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0269-8463.2005.00950.x

Hayashi, Masayuki. (2025). Tree Leaves, 3rd Edition: Identifying 1390 Species Through Real-Life Scans. Yama-kei Publishers. ISBN: 9784635070447

Kumagai, Minami and Saito, Masayuki. (2022). Seasonal changes in the diet of raccoons in temperate forests of the Shonai region of Yamagata Prefecture. Journal of the Tohoku Forest Science Society, 27 (1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.18982/tjfs.27.1_1

Kusui, Haruo & Kusui, Yoko. (1999). Tree seeds of temperate forests carried by martens. In Keisuke Ueda (Ed.), Seed Dispersal: The Evolution of Mutual Aid Vol. 2: Forests Created by Animals (pp. 37-50). Tsukiji Shokan. ISBN: 9784806711933

Nakanishi, Hiroki. (1988). Ant-dispersed plants distributed in the warm temperate zone of Japan. Journal of the Ecological Society of Japan, 38 (2), 169-176. https://doi.org/10.18960/seitai.38.2_169

Maciąg, D., Dobrowolska, E., Sharafan, M., Ekiert, H., Tomczyk, M., & Szopa, A. (2021). Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata: a review of phytochemical composition, ethnopharmacological approaches and biological studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 280, 114486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114486

Matsumoto, D., Shimizu, S., Shimazaki, A., Ito, K., & Taira, S. (2022). Effects of self-pollen contamination in artificial pollination on fruit set of 'Fuji Murasaki' Akebia trifoliata. The Horticulture Journal 91 (4), 431-436. https://doi.org/10.2503/hortj.UTD-385

Mogi, Toru; Ota, Kazuo; Katsuyama, Teruo; Takahashi, Hideo; Shirokawa, Shiro; Yoshiyama, Hiroshi; Ishii, Hidemi; Sakio, Hitoshi; and Nakagawa, Shigetoshi. (2000). Flowers Blooming on Trees: Polypetalous Flowers (Vol. 2, 2nd edition). Yama-kei Publishers. 719pp. ISBN: 9784635070041

Okamoto, Motoharu. (1999). The mutually beneficial relationship between birds and succulents. In Keisuke Ueda (Ed.), Seed Dispersal: The Evolution of Mutual Aid Vol. 1: Seeds Carried by Birds (pp. 27-39). Tsukiji Shokan. ISBN: 9784806711926

Otani, T. (2005). Characteristics of medium-sized mammals as seed dispersers of berries—mainly using Japanese macaques as an example. Nagoya University Journal of Forest Science, 24, 7-43. https://doi.org/10.18999/nagufs.24.7

Shimizu, Takemi. (2001). Illustrated Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Yasaka Shobo. ISBN: 9784896944792

Takahashi, Hideo. (2003). Wild Edible Plants of Japan. Gakken Plus. ISBN: 9784054018815

Takatsuki, Shigeki. (2017). Characteristics of fruits used by martens—a review. Mammalian Science, 57 (2), 337-347. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.57.337

Takatsuki, Shigeki. (2018). Characteristics of fruits used by raccoons—a review. Mammalian Science, 58 (2), 237-246. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.58.237

Wano, Yasuhiro. (2015, November 16). The "Akebia" Fruit of Immortality: People from all over Japan constantly seek this legendary fruit that has been offered to the Imperial Family since ancient times... Sankei News. https://www.sankei.com/article/20151116-R4UEWT34HRNKDMX4RQHNCLPSM4/

Yamagata University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Fruit Tree Horticulture. (2020). The Story of Yamagata's Akebi. Sugihado Printing. ISBN: 9784991178504, https://ssl.samidare.jp/~lavo/zaisakuken/box/akebi.pdf

Yoshizawa, Yuri & Arase, Teruo. (2024). Taxonomic study of three Akebia species based on morphological variation of leaves. Shinshu University Faculty of Agriculture AFC Reports, 22, 45-54. ISSN: 2433-8877, http://hdl.handle.net/10091/0002002080

Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), Chinese yam (Dioscorea longa), Japanese yam (Dioscorea tokoro), and bitter yam (Dioscorea japonica) all belong to the genus Dioscorea in the family Dioscoreaceae. They produce edible tubers and bulbils and are very common climbing perennial plants often seen in urban areas. The genus Dioscorea, also known as yam, is a vast group containing many species, but these four species are the most common in Japan. However, they are often confused, especially Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica ) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea longa), which are used to make "tororo" (grated yam), and this confusion has even occurred at the government level. While there are other species besides these four, these four can be distinguished by the shape of their leaves and flowers, and the presence or absence of tubers (rhizomes) and bulbils. Their reproductive strategies are extremely diverse; tubers, bulbils, flowers, and fruits are all involved in reproduction, but how they are used differs greatly from species to species. Therefore, although they are often confused, each species has a strong biological individuality. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and ecology of the genus Dioscorea.

What are Japanese yam, Chinese yam, Japanese nightshade, and bitter yam?

Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), also known as yamaimo or jinenjo, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in the temperate to subtropical regions of Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, as well as the Korean Peninsula, China, and Taiwan. It commonly grows in alluvial plains and mountainous areas, along forest edges, roadsides, field edges, vacant lots, and park planting areas. However, since only the underground rhizome (edible part) is annual, the leaves above ground wither in winter.

Nagaimo (Japanese yam), also known as Dioscorea polystachya, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in the temperate to subtropical regions of Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; the Korean Peninsula; China; and Taiwan. It grows in alluvial plains and hillsides of the Castanopsis and Quercus zones, along forest edges, fields, vacant lots, and park planting areas. However, since only the underground rhizome (edible part) is annual, the leaves above ground wither in winter. There are various theories regarding the distribution of nagaimo in Japan; one theory suggests it may not be a native species, but rather was introduced from China and may have been cultivated in the late Jomon period, preceding grains and rice (Yoshida, 2019). Numerous cultivated varieties exist.

Dioscorea tokoro is a climbing perennial herb that is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in the temperate to warm zones of the Korean Peninsula and China. It is very common to find it growing in alluvial plains and mountainous areas from the Castanopsis and Quercus zones to the Beech zone, including forest edges, grasslands, vacant lots, and planted areas in parks.

Dioscorea bulbifera, also known as space potato or air potato, is a climbing perennial herb widely distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan; and in the subtropical to tropical regions of Asia and Oceania. It grows in forest edges and grasslands along rivers in alluvial plains and hilly areas of the Castanopsis and Quercus zones.

All of these belong to the genus Dioscorea in the family Dioscoreaceae, and are very common climbing perennial plants that can often be seen even in urban areas. The genus Dioscorea is a group that includes a vast number of species, but these four species are the most commonly encountered in Japan.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #058] What are the species of the Dioscoreaceae family? Photo list

The Dioscoreaceae family consists of herbaceous or climbing plants, comprising over 630 species across three genera distributed worldwide, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. In Japan, only the genus *Dioscorea* is found. This article provides a comprehensive, field-guide-style introduction to plants of the Dioscoreaceae family. Basic information is available from the Kanagawa Prefectural Botanical Garden…

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Its most distinctive feature is that it can form roots or bulbils, commonly referred to as "potatoes." Of the four species, only Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica) are edible in Japan.

The root of the nagaimo yam is eaten as "tororo" when grated, and it's an indispensable topping when you're eating out and paying a little extra for it, especially with soba noodles or rice bowls.

However, Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica) are extremely often confused. They are so confused that, according to statistics from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, they weren't even distinguished from each other until 2008. Few websites clearly explain the difference between them.

Furthermore, in the wild, Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica) and Dioscorea tokoro often grow together, so it is necessary to distinguish between the two.

Furthermore, Japanese specimens of bitter cinnamon are bitter and not typically eaten, so it's necessary to distinguish them from other plants.

Although these groups are very similar, there are often situations where it is necessary to distinguish between them.

What are the differences between Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), Chinese yam (Dioscorea tokoro), and bitter yam (Dioscorea japonica)?

The genus Dioscorea is a very large group of known species, and it's difficult to describe all the differences here, but I'll focus on four relatively common species.

Regarding the leaves, there is a difference in that the leaves of Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica) are triangular-ovate to triangular-lanceolate, while those of Japanese yam (Dioscorea tokoro) and bitter yam (Dioscorea japonica) are orbicular-cordate (heart-shaped).

However, since yams exhibit considerable variation, with some having leaves that are nearly heart-shaped, it is important to examine multiple leaves.

Regarding Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica), the difference lies in the fact that in Japanese yam, the lateral base does not protrude in an ear-like shape and the base of the leaf blade is green, while in Chinese yam, the lateral base protrudes in an ear-like shape and the base of the leaf blade is reddish-purple.

Regarding Dioscorea tokoro and Dioscorea japonica, the difference is that in Dioscorea tokoro, the base of the petiole is smooth, while in Dioscorea japonica, the base of the petiole protrudes in a stipule-like manner and clasps almost half of the stem.

There are even greater differences in the presence or absence of rhizomes and bulbils, as well as in the shape of the flowers. Please check the details below.

What are the differences in how to use Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), Chinese yam (Dioscorea tokoro), and bitter yam (Dioscorea japonica)?

The four uses vary greatly depending on the developmental stage of the organs and the taste of each of the four types.

When used, yams are usually for food, and there are typically two types: the wild yam (Dioscorea japonica), which is common in the wild, and the cultivated Chinese yam (Dioscorea longa). There are various theories about the distribution of Chinese yams in Japan, and one theory suggests that it is questionable whether it is a native species, and that it may have been introduced from China and cultivated in the late Jomon period, preceding grains and rice (Yoshida, 2019). It already appears in the dictionary "Wamyō Ruijushō," which was compiled in the mid-Heian period, suggesting that it was already being used.

For a long time, the two species were rarely distinguished for consumption, and even in the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries' crop survey statistics, they were not differentiated until 2008. However, since 2007, it has been found that the majority of what is sold as "yamaimo" (Japanese yam) is actually nagaimo (Chinese yam).

Both Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica) have a single cylindrical, fleshy "root" (also known as a tuber, or "potato") underground. In Japan, the roots of both species are collectively called "tororo imo," and in the case of Japanese yam, they are also called "jinenjo." Chinese yam has a thicker shape.

However, cultivated varieties of Japanese yam, such as Tsukuneimo and Yamatoimo (Yamatoimo), are round in shape.

This part is cut into sticks and mixed with okra, or grated and mixed with white soy sauce and dashi to make the sticky "tororo," which is commonly eaten as "tororo soba," "tororo udon," or "mugitoro gohan." The stickiness is due to mucilage (or mucin, according to some papers), and it can be eaten raw.

It is said that grated yam (Yamaimo) is far stickier than grated Chinese yam (Nagaimo).

While cultivated nagaimo (Chinese yam) is typically used in restaurants, wild yam (Yamaimo) was likely also used before the Edo period, and even today, wild yam is sometimes used intentionally due to its different texture.

Furthermore, Japanese yam, Chinese yam, and bitter yam form "bulbils" in the leaf axils.

Mukago, also known as "bulbils," are the buds that have developed to contain nutrients for reproduction.

Because the bulbils of both Japanese yam and Chinese yam have a potato-like texture, they are eaten. They are cooked with rice to make "mukago rice," or served as a snack with drinks at izakayas (Japanese pubs), sometimes stir-fried with salt, or as "deep-fried mukago" or "mukago tempura." However, it is usually the Chinese yam that is eaten.

In addition, it was sometimes called wild yam or soil yam and used as a herbal medicine.

On the other hand, while bitter corn has rhizomes and bulbils, both are very bitter and are not usually eaten. This is as its Japanese name suggests. However, cultivated varieties are commonly eaten worldwide because the bitterness can be removed by boiling, and it is popular in West Africa. In Japan, it is sold under the names "space potato" or "air potato."

As for *Dioscorea tokoro*, it lacks both rhizomes and bulbils, so it is not usually eaten. However, it does form a rhizome instead of rhizomes.

Are there any other similar species?

The genus Dioscorea is a very broad group, so it's impossible to list them all here. However, some species that resemble Dioscorea tokoro found in the wild in Japan include Dioscorea japonica, Dioscorea japonica, Dioscorea tokoro, Dioscorea japonica, and Dioscorea japonica, so caution is advised.

Globally, edible yams of the genus Dioscorea are collectively called "yam," and include species such as Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea elephantipes (also known as Dioscorea elephantipes).

Yams are rich in dietary fiber, starch, sugars and other carbohydrates, as well as protein, lipids, vitamins, and minerals, providing approximately 200 calories per person per day to 300 million people in tropical regions, making them one of the world's most important staple root vegetables and tubers (Obidiegwu et al., 2020).

How do they reproduce? Why do they reproduce through bulbils and pollination?

Reproductive methods vary greatly depending on the species.

Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica), and bitter yam (Dioscorea japonica) reproduce asexually through clonal propagation via bulbils and sexually through insect-pollinated flowers, incorporating genes from other plants.

In the reproduction of bulbils, they are either dropped to the ground by gravity, washed away by water, or, like acorns, carried by mice and stored underground (stored), and then germinate when forgotten by the mice (Mizuki & Takahashi, 2009).

Compared to asexual reproduction via rhizomes, stolons, and stolons, bulbils are considered to have advantages in that they can move to spatially distant, suitable environments for growth and are resilient to disturbed areas (such as aquatic environments and roadsides where the environment changes drastically) (Inoue, 2007).

On the other hand, *Dioscorea tokoro* does not produce bulbils and reproduces only sexually through insect-pollinated flowers.

Why do Japanese yam, Chinese yam, and bitter yam reproduce in two different ways, including by adding bulbils?

Generally, two advantages are explained (Takahashi & Inoue, 2005; Mizuki & Takahashi, 2009).

The first advantage is that bulbils weigh about 100 times more than seeds in dry weight, and they can germinate and grow even in dark environments, so the survival rate of offspring is higher with bulbils than with seeds.

The second advantage is that organisms want to pass on all of their genes if possible, so creating bulbils, which are clones, allows twice as many of the female parent's genes to be passed on as seeds.

However, this might lead you to wonder why they reproduce sexually through insect pollination.

There are two potential advantages to this as well.

The first advantage of sexual reproduction is that, due to the effects of various genes, the offspring become more resistant to pests, diseases, pathogens, and changes in the natural environment.

The second feature is unique to the genus Dioscorea, which has capsules with "wings" that make it easier to catch the wind, and its seeds are also circular with thin wings around the edge. These features allow for efficient seed dispersal (wind dispersal), which has the advantage of sending the offspring further than bulbils, thus reducing the risk of competition among offspring (such as competing for nutrients).

While it is true that bulbils can be transported far from the mother plant by mice, it has been found that their range of movement is shorter than that of seeds.

From the above, it can be said that Japanese yam, Chinese yam, and bitter ginger combine the best aspects of asexual and sexual reproduction, thereby increasing their efficiency.

However, this still leaves a question: If that's the case, why doesn't *Dioscorea tokoro* reproduce asexually?

This has not yet been investigated. Dioscorea tokoro is a species that reproduces just as well as Dioscorea japonica, and it does not seem to suffer significant losses from losing the advantages mentioned above.

One possibility is that the African species D. sansibarensis has highly buoyant bulbils that spread by water currents, resulting in a wide distribution in valleys (Chen et al., 2022). Furthermore, D. alata is known to form bulbils when the soil becomes moist during the rainy season (Hamaoka et al., 2023).

Unlike seeds, bulbils are expected to be a more efficient way for plants to reproduce even in aquatic environments, and since *Dioscorea tokoro* is a species adapted to land, it may not need to produce bulbils.

In fact, the bitter oak, which is common in aquatic environments, does have bulbils. However, this is merely speculation.

How do they pollinate? The insects that visit them vary completely depending on the species!

All four species are dioecious, meaning they have separate plants that produce only male flowers and only female flowers. They all share six perianth segments, and male flowers have six stamens.

As mentioned above, it is an insect-pollinated flower, relying on insects for pollination. However, it gives the impression of being very inconspicuous compared to other insect-pollinated flowers. What kind of insects visit it?

It turns out that the flowers are actually visited by a special, very small insect that is perfectly sized for them.

In Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), the male inflorescences are erect from the leaf axils, while the female inflorescences droop, and the perianth segments are white and do not open very much (Hayashi et al., 2013). When 427 insects that visited these flowers were collected, 97% were found to be thrips, which are very small pollinating insects (Mizuki et al., 2005).

In Chinese yam (Dioscorea japonica), the male inflorescences are almost identical to those of Japanese yam (Dioscorea japonica), except for the drooping male inflorescences. A study conducted in China revealed that only one species of thrips, Ernothrips lobatus, visits the flowers (Li et al., 2014). This thrips also lays eggs and develops its larvae within the flowers, indicating a close relationship at the life cycle level. However, thrips can only move short distances, and pollination cannot occur unless males and females are in close proximity.

On the other hand, in Dioscorea tokoro, the male inflorescences are erect from the leaf axils, while the female inflorescences are drooping, and the perianth segments are pale green and spread flat (Kudo et al., 2021). When 389 insects that visited this flower were collected, 57% were gall midges and 11.6% were biting midges, but it was mostly biting midges that were actually carrying the pollen (Mochizuki et al., 2025).

Furthermore, despite the fact that both the male and female inflorescences of *Rhododendron parvifolium* droop and the perianth segments change from white to purple, a study in China found no records of insects visiting the flowers even once in two years, suggesting that it relies almost entirely on asexual reproduction via bulbils, with only a small portion being wind-pollinated (Li et al., 2014). It also rarely produces fruit in Japan (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Thus, we have obtained contrasting results: thrips visit Japanese yam and Chinese yam, small flies visit Japanese yam, and no insects visit bitter ginger. Although they are very similar in appearance, it can be said that their reproductive strategies are completely different.

What are the seed dispersal methods?

The fruits of all four species are capsules, possessing wings that make them more susceptible to wind, and the seeds also have wings (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018; Chen et al., 2022).

As mentioned above, this is done to disperse seeds by wind, which has allowed the offspring to travel even greater distances than bulbils.

References

Chen, M., Sun, X., Xue, JY, Zhou, Y., & Hang, Y. (2022). Evolution of Reproductive Traits and Implications for Adaptation and Diversification in the Yam Genus Dioscorea L. Diversity, 14 (5), 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14050349

Hamaoka, N., Moriyama, T., Taniguchi, T., Suriyasak, C., & Ishibashi, Y. (2023). Bulbil formation on water yam (Dioscorea alata L.) is promoted by waterlogged soil. Agronomy, 13 (2), 484. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13020484

Hayashi, Yasaka, Kadota, Yuichi, and Hirano, Takahisa. (2013). Yamakei Handy Illustrated Guide 1: Wildflowers (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers. ISBN: 9784635070195

Inoue, Mizuki. (2007). Dispersion and spatial structure in dispersing clonal growth plants (bulbils, rhizomes, etc.)—comparison with non-dispersing clonal growth plants (rhizomes, stolons, projectiles). Journal of the Ecological Society of Japan, 57 (2), 238-244. https://doi.org/10.18960/seitai.57.2_238

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. (2018). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 Electronic Edition. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kudo, A., Sugihara, Y., Ota, A., & Terauchi, R. (2021). Upright males and drooping females—sexual differences in flower traits and visitor numbers in the dioecious plant Dioscorea tokoro. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of Japan, 68, P1-061. https://esj.ne.jp/meeting/abst/68/P1-061.html

Mizuki, I., Ishida, K., Tani, N., & Tsumura, Y. (2010). Fine-scale spatial structure of genes and sexes in the dioecious plant Dioscorea japonica, which disperses by both bulbils and seeds. Evolutionary Ecology, 24 (6), 1399-1415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-010-9396-z

Mizuki, I., Osawa, N., & Tsutsumi, T. (2005). Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on the flowers of a dioecious plant, Dioscorea japonica (Dioscoreaceae). The Canadian Entomologist, 137 (6), 712-715. https://doi.org/10.4039/n05-003

Mizuki, I., & Takahashi, A. (2009). Secondary dispersal of Dioscorea japonica (Dioscoreaceae) bulbils by rodents. Journal of Forest Research, 14 (2), 95-100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10310-008-0106-4

Mochizuki, K., Elsayed, AK, & Kawakita, A. (2025). Pollination by biting midges in Dioscorea tokoro and Vincetoxicum aristolochioides with a secondary contribution of gall midges: Pollination by biting midges in Dioscorea tokoro and Vincetoxicum aristolochioides with a secondary contribution of gall midges. Arthropod-Plant Interactions, 19 (3), 41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-025-10142-4

Li, MM, Yan, QQ, Sun, XQ, Zhao, YM, Zhou, YF, & Hang, YY (2014). A preliminary study on pollination biology of three species in Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). Life Science Journal, 11 (2), 436-444. https://www.lifesciencesite.com/lsj/life1102/060_B00049life110214_436_444.pdf

Obidiegwu, JE, Lyons, JB, & Chilaka, CA (2020). The Dioscorea Genus (Yam): An appraisal of nutritional and therapeutic potentials. Foods, 9 (9), 1304. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091304

Takahashi, Akiko & Inoue, Mizuki. (2005). Comparison of dispersal distances of seeds and bulbils of *Dioscorea japonica*: Wind, gravity, and mice. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of Japan, 52, 528. https://doi.org/10.14848/esj.ESJ52.0.528.0

Yoshida, M. (2019). Japanese people and sweet potatoes. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 39 (5), 235-248. ISSN: 0288-0806, https://ku-food-lab.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2774f33ed7e947fb03c1d40880e92a23.pdf

White magnolia, kobushi magnolia, star magnolia, and tamushiba all belong to the Magnolia genus of the Magnoliaceae family. As deciduous trees, they shed their leaves in winter, and a key characteristic is that around April, before the leaves appear like cherry blossoms, they produce large, white, polypetalous flowers, one per branch. These trees are common in cities and signal the arrival of spring, but they can be difficult to distinguish. Even in early spring when only the flowers are in bloom, they can be identified mainly by the number of petals, and later, the shape of the leaves also provides sufficient distinction. The flowers may appear primitive, but they actually possess various functions, such as protegry (female-first maturation), heat production, scent, and petal movement, which are specialized for attracting beetles. The fruit is oddly shaped and, when ripe, exposes red seeds that are dispersed by birds. This article will explain the white-flowered, deciduous Magnolia genus.

What are white magnolias, kobushi magnolias, star magnolias, and tamushiba magnolias?

White magnolia (Magnolia denudata) is a deciduous tree native to China that grows in forests and is widely planted in parks and gardens in Japan (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Magnolia kobus, also known as Kobushi, is a deciduous tree distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as the Korean Peninsula. It is commonly found in deciduous forests and is widely planted in parks and gardens. There are two theories as to the origin of its name: one is that the shape of its buds or fruits resembles a "fist."

Magnolia stellata, also known as Shidekobushi or Himekobushi, is a deciduous shrub distributed in the central region of Honshu, Japan, and is often planted in parks and gardens. Its name comes from the fact that the shape of its petals resembles the "shide" (four-handed sticks) used in Shinto rituals.

Magnolia salicifolia, also known as Tamushiba (rice field insect leaf), is a deciduous tree distributed throughout Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, and commonly found in mountainous areas along the Sea of Japan. There are two theories about the origin of its name: one is that it is named after the insect-like spots that appear on its leaves, and the other is that it was originally called "Kamushiba" (chewing bush) because the leaves have a unique sweet taste when chewed, which later evolved into "Tamushiba."

All of these species belong to the genus Magnolia in the family Magnoliaceae. As members of the Magnolia genus, they are characterized by elliptical to obovate leaves that are not shallowly lobed, and fruits that are aggregate fruits made up of follicles. In addition, these four species are deciduous trees, meaning they shed their leaves in winter and, around April, before the leaves emerge (unfold) like cherry blossoms, they produce large, white, polypetalous flowers, one per branch (terminally). The stamens and pistils inside are arranged spirally.

In Japan, they are often planted even in towns, and can be said to be a tree that, along with cherry blossoms, heralds the arrival of spring in the town.

However, since the flowers are the only visible feature of these four species during their peak season, it is often difficult to distinguish between them.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #028] What are the species of the Magnoliaceae family? Photo list

The Magnoliaceae family consists of evergreen or deciduous woody plants. The leaves are simple and alternate. The perianth segments are separate and whorled, exhibiting triperality. The stamens and pistils are numerous and arranged spirally. Approximately 300 species across two genera are known in the temperate and subtropical regions of Asia and America, with 7 species in one genus found in Japan...

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What are the differences between white magnolia, kobushi magnolia, star magnolia, and tamushiba magnolia?

First of all, as a premise, the white magnolia is an introduced species native to China, while the kobushi magnolia, shidekobushi magnolia, and tamushiba magnolia are native species, so you will not see white magnolias in the wild.

Furthermore, since Magnolia kobus is rarely planted as a park tree in Japan (Tamaki, 2020), the types you'll most likely see in town are Magnolia denudata, Magnolia kobus, or Magnolia stellata.

Next, we will consider the differences between the most commonly seen flowers (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

In Magnolia stellata, the petal-like perianth segments are slender and there are more than 10 of them, whereas in Magnolia denudata, Magnolia kobus, and Magnolia salicifolia, there are 9 or fewer petal-like perianth segments.

The term "petal-like perianth segments" is just a technical term; you can think of them as simply the "petals" that we normally see.

Regarding the remaining three species, the difference lies in the fact that the white magnolia has nine broad petals, while the kobushi magnolia and tamushiba magnolia have six narrow petals.

The reason why the white magnolia appears to have nine "petals" is that three of its sepals (the parts that normally support the petals) have changed to resemble the color and shape of the actual petals. Magnolia kobus and Magnolia salicifolia have three small, normal green sepals. The term "petal-like perianth segments" used earlier is a roundabout expression because of this situation.

Because of these characteristics, the flowers of the white magnolia tightly enclose the inside without any gaps, whereas those of the kobushi magnolia and tamushiba magnolia appear sparse.

Regarding the remaining two species, the difference is that in Magnolia kobus, the tips of the perianth segments are blunt and there are small leaves just below the flower, while in Magnolia salicifolia, the tips of the perianth segments are somewhat acute and there are no small leaves just below the flower.

"Small leaves" refers to the new leaves that are just beginning to grow in preparation for the coming spring.

The leaves show even more distinct differences than the flowers (Hayashi, 2025).

While white magnolias, kobushi magnolias, and tamushiba magnolias have leaf tips that protrude, the star magnolia has leaf tips that are concave.

Regarding the remaining three species, the difference lies in the fact that while Magnolia kobus typically has long, slender leaves with sharply protruding, unequal-shaped tips, Magnolia denudata and Magnolia kobus have obovate leaves with rounded, bracket-shaped tips.

Regarding the remaining two species, the differences are that the white magnolia is large, has no wrinkles on the upper surface, the lateral veins on the lower surface are not prominent, and the leaf margin is flat without undulation, while the kobushi magnolia is small, has prominent wrinkles on the upper surface, prominent lateral veins on the lower surface, and the leaf margin is wavy and three-dimensional.

Are there any other similar types?

The genus Magnolia includes a great many species, such as purple magnolia, southern magnolia, and large-leaved magnolia, but only a very limited number are deciduous and produce white flowers.

Magnolia kobus f. pseudokobus is a species of kobushi-modoki (false kobushi magnolia) that has only been reported as a single individual in Tokushima Prefecture, Shikoku, where Magnolia kobus is not found. Furthermore, this wild individual is already extinct, and currently, clones propagated by cuttings are preserved outside of its natural habitat (Tamaki, 2021). Originally classified as Magnolia pseudokobus, recent research has revealed that it is a triploid, and it has now been reclassified as a cultivar.

Magnolia obovata is easily distinguishable from other trees because it flowers after its leaves have unfolded, its leaves are arranged almost in a whorl at the tips of its branches, and they are over 20 cm long.

Magnolia x soulangeana, also known as Sarasa Magnolia, Nishiki Magnolia, or Sotobeni Hakumokuren, is a hybrid of Magnolia denudata and Magnolia liliflora (a species with reddish-purple outer petals). Its petals are often pink to purple on the outside and white on the inside.

How is it pollinated? Is the claim that it's a "primitive flower" a lie?!

Magnoliaceae flowers are large and usually have numerous stamens and pistils arranged in a spiral. This characteristic is also found in Nymphaeaceae and Illiciaceae, and is often considered a primitive feature of Permian angiosperms (Higashi, 2004). In fact, recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have shown that magnoliids are a group that branched off quite early among angiosperms, and the existence of similar flower fossils seems to support this.

It is generally well known that large, simple white flowers like these are primarily pollinated by beetles (insects with hard wings, such as scarab beetles) (Higashi, 2004). Many species in the Magnoliaceae family also exhibit this characteristic, and it has been confirmed that beetles are indeed the primary visitors to their flowers.

For these reasons, the hypothesis that "the ancestors of angiosperms had flowers similar in shape to those of the Magnoliaceae family, and that primitive beetles visited and pollinated them in the very beginning, and that the flowers of the Magnoliaceae family are a remnant of that!" was strongly supported.

However, the prevailing view now is that these characteristics are derived traits from a botanical perspective, particularly within the Magnoliaceae family or parts of the Magnoliales order (Judd et al., 2008). In other words, the ancestors of angiosperms did not originally have such flower shapes; rather, these characteristics evolved independently of the Nymphaeaceae and Illiciaceae families.

Furthermore, from an entomological perspective, it has become clear that most existing groups of beetles originated during the Early Cretaceous period, when the Magnoliidae family arose (Hernandez-Vera et al., 2021).

For these reasons, it is believed that the flowers of the Magnoliaceae family evolved after a diverse range of beetles emerged. Beetles that parasitized gymnosperms gradually settled there, feeding, mating, and taking refuge within the flowers, which is thought to have promoted the diversification of Magnoliaceae flowers we see today.

In other words, the flowers of the Magnolia family are not remnants, but rather a new species that arose through parallel evolution.

Magnoliaceae flowers are known to exhibit protandry (female-first maturation), heat production, fragrance, and petal movement, and these features are thought to have evolved specifically for beetles.

Protigmatism is a phenomenon in which the sex of a flower changes over time, transitioning from a female phase to a male phase. While its effect on beetles is unknown, it is known that approximately 90% of protigmatism is pollinated by beetles, and it generally prevents self-pollination.

The flowers open during the female and male phases, and close during the period in between when pollen and nectar are produced, thereby controlling the entry and exit of beetles.

Thermogenesis in flower petals occurs in early spring when the petals reflect sunlight, warming the inside of the flower and providing warmth, which attracts beetles seeking thermal energy.

The four species of Magnolia mentioned above are no exception; it is believed that beetles play a central role in flower visitation, pollination, and fertilization.

There is still no specific research on white magnolias.

Magnolia kobus is known to be most effectively pollinated by several species of small beetles that forage for pollen (Ishida, 1996). Female flowers, which do not receive rewards, may be engaging in "hermaphroditism," mimicking male flowers, which do receive rewards.

It is known that Magnolia stellata is primarily pollinated by insects of the orders Coleoptera (Staphylinidae), Thysanoptera, and Diptera (Hirayama et al., 2005; Suzuki et al., 2009).

Magnolia salicifolia has been reported to be pollinated by various species including Hymenoptera (Bombus genus and bees), Coleoptera (Nitidulidae), and Diptera (Empididae and Syrphidae) (Yasukawa et al., 1992).

Despite these flowers being quite similar, the pollinating insects that visit them differ slightly. This may be related to subtle differences in the color and shape of the flowers, but as mentioned above, it has also been suggested that the scent of the flowers may play a role (Higashi, 2004).

It has been found that the white magnolia, which is native to China, strongly releases pentadecane, a type of hydrocarbon, as its main component (80-95%).

On the other hand, it has been found that the main components of Magnolia kobus, which is distributed mainly in Japan, are the terpenoid linalool (22%) and its oxides (66%), the main component of Magnolia hornbeam is methyl benzoate (100%), and the main components of Magnolia salicifolia are benzenoides such as 1,2-dimethoxybenzene (65%), benzyl alcohol (17%), and benzaldehyde (10%).

The relationship between these components and the insects they attract hasn't been specifically studied, but it may be an important factor.

What are the seed dispersal methods?

The fruit, common to the Magnolia genus, is an aggregate fruit composed of follicles. The aggregate fruit has an irregular shape, resembling an insect gall, and is a very unique shape not found in other plants.

The young aggregate fruit is an irregular green color, but as it ripens, it gradually turns red, and finally, each individual follicle of the brown aggregate fruit splits open, exposing bright red seeds. Some websites mistakenly refer to these red seeds as the "fruit," so please be aware of this error.

The reason for this misunderstanding is that these soft, red seeds can be split open, revealing hard, black, woody seeds underneath.

For a long time, there was a conflicting hypothesis as to whether this structure consists of a "red arilate" and a "black seed coat," or a "red fleshy seed coat (sarcotesta)" and a "black hard seed coat (sclerotesta)." It is now understood that the latter is true (Feng et al., 2024).

Magnolia seeds are dispersed by animal feeding. The red fleshy seed coat attracts animals, especially birds that can see red, while the black hard seed coat prevents the embryo from being digested after being eaten by birds. This allows the seeds to be dispersed over long distances, expanding their distribution and preventing competition with the parent tree.

The same is thought to be true for the four types mentioned above.

There is no data available on seed dispersal of white magnolia.

Magnolia kobus seeds are mainly dispersed by birds, although there have been reports of dispersal by martens (Tamaki, 2021).

The seeds of Magnolia stellata are dispersed by birds or gravity (Tamaki, 2016).

The seeds of Magnolia salicifolia are dispersed by birds and rodents (Tamaki, 2020).

References

Higashi, Koji. 2004. Scent and phylogenetic evolution of Magnoliaceae flowers. Classification 4(1): 49-61. https://doi.org/10.18942/bunrui.KJ00004649594

Feng, Q., Cai, M., Li, H., & Zhang, X. 2024. How seeds attract and protect: Seed coat development of magnolia. Plants 13(5): 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13050688

Hayashi, Masayuki. 2025. Tree Leaves, 3rd Edition: Identifying 1390 Species Through Real-Life Scans. Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 840pp. ISBN: 9784635070447

Hernandez-Vera, G., Navarrete-Heredia, JL, & Vazquez-Garcia, JA 2021. Beetles as floral visitors in the Magnoliaceae: an evolutionary perspective. Arthropod-Plant Interactions 15(3): 273-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-021-09819-3

Hirayama, K., Ishida, K., & Tomaru, N. 2005. Effects of pollen shortage and self-pollination on seed production of an endangered tree, Magnolia stellata. Annals of Botany 95(6): 1009-1015. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mci107

Ishida, K. 1996. Beetle pollination of Magnolia praecissima var. borealis. Plant Species Biology 11(2-3): 199-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-1984.1996.tb00146.x

Judd, WS, Campbell, CS, Kellogg, EA, Stevens, PF, Donoghue, & MJ 2008. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach (3rd ed.). Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland. 611pp. ISBN: 9780878934072

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Suzuki, Setsuko; Ishida, Kiyoshi; and Tomaru, Nobuhiro. 2009. Relationship between successful female reproduction in Magnolia stellata and pollinating insects. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of Japan 56: PB2-647. https://www.esj.ne.jp/meeting/abst/56/PB2-647.html

Tamaki, Ichiro. 2016. Geographical genetic structure of forest trees in Japan (12) Magnolia stellata (Magnolia genus, Magnoliaceae). Forest Genetics and Breeding 5(2): 83-87. https://doi.org/10.32135/fgtb.5.2_83

Tamaki, Ichiro. 2020. Geographical genetic structure of forest trees in Japan (28) Magnolia salicifolia (Magnolia genus, Magnoliaceae). Forest Genetics and Breeding 9(3): 105-109. https://doi.org/10.32135/fgtb.9.3_105

Tamaki, Ichiro. 2021. Geographical genetic structure of forest trees in Japan (32) Magnolia kobus (Magnolia genus, Magnoliaceae). Forest Genetics and Breeding 10(2): 116-119. https://doi.org/10.32135/fgtb.10.2_116

Yasukawa, S., Kato, H., Yamaoka, R., Tanaka, H., Arai, H., & Kawano, S. 1992. Reproductive and pollination biology of Magnolia and its allied genera (Magnoliaceae). I. Floral volatiles of several Magnolia and Michelia species and their roles in attracting insects. Plant Species Biology 7(2-3): 121-140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-1984.1992.tb00225.x

European pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins, and pepo pumpkins are all annual vining plants belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family, Cucurbita genus. Originally from the Americas, they are very popular in Japan, playing an important role in both everyday meals and Halloween celebrations. However, the three species are often confused, and no websites clearly explain their differences. They can be distinguished by their leaves, flowers, and fruit stalks. To briefly summarize the differences in use, focusing solely on Japan: European pumpkins are currently the most common, with sweet, sticky fruit used in stews and salads. Japanese pumpkins were the dominant variety before World War II, characterized by their mild flavor, and were used in stews, but were eventually replaced by European pumpkins. However, Japanese pumpkins are still used for sweets. Pepo pumpkins were very minor, although varieties like the Kinshiuri exist, but after the war, they became more common with zucchini and Connecticut field pumpkins used for Halloween jack-o'-lanterns. Pumpkins are not native to Japan or the West; they originated in the Americas. Surprisingly, the Japanese pumpkin is the most common in the West. It is believed that the fruit was originally eaten and the seeds dispersed by large mammals like the now-extinct mastodon. This article will explain the classification, morphology, history, and culture of the genus Cucurbita.

What are European pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins, and pepo pumpkins?

The European pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), also known as the Japanese pumpkin, is a climbing annual plant native to South America (Argentina and Bolivia) and cultivated worldwide for its edible fruit (RBG Kew, 2026).

Japanese pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata), also known as Oriental pumpkin or Boubra, is a climbing annual plant native to Central America (Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico) and cultivated worldwide for its edible fruit. Among the vast number of varieties, some of the most representative Japanese varieties include the crane-necked pumpkin (Tsurukubi Kabocha) var. luffiformis, whose fruit is long and slender with a neck resembling a crane's neck; the chrysanthemum-seat pumpkin (Kikuza Kabocha) var. meloniformis, whose fruit has deep vertical grooves and whose cross-section resembles a chrysanthemum flower; and the gourd-shaped Saikyo pumpkin (Tounasu/Shishigatani Kabocha) var. meloniformis 'Toonas'.

Cucurbita pepo, also known as pepo pumpkin, is a climbing annual plant native to Central America (Mexico) and cultivated worldwide for its edible and ornamental fruits. It boasts a vast number of varieties, including the edible zucchini subsp. pepo 'Melopepo', the horticultural variety and subspecies of the Connecticut field pumpkin subsp. pepo 'Connecticut field', which has oblate-spherical fruits used in jack-o'-lanterns, and the ornamental pumpkin subsp. texana (var. ovifera is a synonym), which has oddly shaped fruits (Gong et al., 2012).

Both are annual vines belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family, genus Cucurbita. They are creeping plants, and their most distinctive feature is their large, fleshy fruit, as well as their yellow, bell-shaped corollas, which are important characteristics from a taxonomic standpoint.

However, the incorrect naming conventions of "Japanese pumpkin" and "Western pumpkin," which do not reflect their origins, have led to the misconception that Japanese pumpkins are a native species and Western pumpkins came from the West.

This is based on the historical circumstances of how both species were introduced to Japan, but in reality, as mentioned above, they are native to the Americas and are neither Japanese nor Western in any way.

Moreover, despite the fact that European pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins, and pepo pumpkins are completely different species, they are treated as if they were separate varieties, and few websites point out specific morphological differences, further exacerbating the misunderstanding.

The pepo pumpkin is relatively obscure and not well-known. However, edible zucchini is a cultivated variety of pepo pumpkin, and the Connecticut Field Pumpkin, a cultivated variety of pepo pumpkin, is used for Halloween jack-o'-lanterns.

Because there are many cultivated varieties of these three types of pumpkins, the names "○○ pumpkin" are often used without explanation, leading to confusion.

What are the differences between European pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins, and pepo pumpkins?

Let's start by clarifying the biological and morphological differences between the three main types. While there are many varieties, biologically speaking, the three most common types are sufficient, and understanding just these three is all you need.

As a fundamental point, as mentioned above, their natural distribution differs: the European pumpkin is native to South America (Argentina and Bolivia), the Japanese pumpkin is native to Central America (Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico), and the pepo pumpkin is native to Central America (Mexico).

While it's undeniable that the three species evolved from a common ancestor, the fact that the European pumpkin is distributed primarily in South America suggests that the three species have completely separated without interbreeding in the wild.

We will consider the specific differences in form (Wu et al., 2011).

In Japanese pumpkins, the flower sepals are linear with leaf-like tips, and the fruit stalk expands significantly at the tip. In contrast, in European pumpkins and pepo pumpkins, the flower sepals are linear to linear-lanceolate with slender tips, and the fruit stalk does not expand significantly at the tip.

The description "the flower's sepals are linear with leaf-like tips" is a little difficult to understand, but it means that the sepals at the back of the flower extend slightly to the sides, increasing their surface area and making them somewhat similar in shape to ordinary leaves. In pumpkins and pepo pumpkins, the sepals are simple and slender.

The phrase "the stalk expands significantly at the tip" is also difficult to understand, but essentially, Japanese pumpkins have a circular, whitish indentation at the tip of the stalk where the fruit's stem ends, while European pumpkins and pepo pumpkins lack this, resulting in a flat, simple appearance. This is one reason why Japanese pumpkins look "bumpy." However, some varieties, such as the vine-necked pumpkin, have evolved in a way that makes this characteristic less noticeable.

Regarding pumpkins (Pumpkin serrulata) and pepo pumpkins (Pumpkin pepo), the differences are that in pumpkins, the leaf blades are kidney-shaped to spherical with nearly entire margins, the sepals are lanceolate, and the fruit pedicels lack angular grooves and do not thicken at the tip, while in pepo pumpkins, the leaf blades are triangular to ovate-triangular with 5 to 7 irregular lobes, the sepals are linear-lanceolate, and the fruit pedicels have angular grooves and are slightly thickened at the tip.

For this, looking at the shape of the leaves should be sufficient. You can understand it as simply this: European pumpkins have leaves that don't separate, while pepo pumpkins have leaves that do.

The fruit morphology is so diverse that it's not a reliable indicator for distinguishing between the three varieties. However, you can differentiate them if you remember the shape of each variety, and nowadays, you can easily identify the variety name using Google Image Search.

Other pumpkin varieties cultivated in Japan include Cucurbita ficifolia and Cucurbita argyrosperma, but these are less common in Japan, so we will omit them.

What's the difference between pumpkin and squash?

In English, pumpkins are sometimes referred to as "pumkin" or "squash."

However, this does not distinguish the three species biologically; "pumpkin" is a general term for varieties of pumpkins in the Cucurbita genus that have orange rinds, while "squash" is a general term for varieties of pumpkins in the Cucurbita genus that have green rinds.

Therefore, the most common variety of pumpkin in Japan is called squash. It's all a bit confusing, isn't it?

What are the differences in history and uses between European pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins, and pepo pumpkins?

The uses of European pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins, and pepo pumpkins vary considerably from country to country. Therefore, it's difficult to summarize them in a single sentence.

To summarize briefly, focusing solely on Japan, the European pumpkin is currently the most common, with sweet and sticky fruit used in stews and sweets. The Japanese pumpkin was the most common before World War II, characterized by its mild flavor, and was used in stews, but it was replaced by the European pumpkin. The Pepo pumpkin was very minor, although there are varieties like the Golden Melon, but after the war, it became common with zucchini and the Connecticut Field Pumpkin, also known as Jack-o'-lantern.

In Japan, the most common type of pumpkin is the European pumpkin, while in Europe, the most common is the Japanese pumpkin.

Each of the three varieties has undergone significant changes in form due to micro-evolution and selective breeding brought about by Native Americans through domestication (Bisognin, 2002; Spengler, 2020). Just like corn and tomatoes, the efforts of Native Americans are what have enriched our current diets.

It is highly valued for its enormous seeds and fruits, which are edible, but they weren't always that large.

First, it is thought that selection for larger seeds led to the development of larger fruits. Generally, bitter fruits contained non-bitter seeds, so it is thought that the seeds were the first to be used as food. Subsequently, immature fruits were selected for their non-bitter flesh, and mature fruits were selected for their non-bitter, starchy flesh and non-woody peel.

What are the uses of European pumpkins?

As mentioned above, the European pumpkin originates from South America and for a long time was not used by any people other than Native Americans. It began to spread to North America and the rest of the world after the "Columbian Exchange" following the arrival of Columbus (1492-) (Nee, 1990). Records show that various varieties were used by Native Americans in the 16th century. In Japan, two to three varieties were introduced from the United States in 1863, and many more varieties were introduced by the Hokkaido Development Commission in the early Meiji period, becoming established in various regions (Fujita, 2010).

Therefore, although it is called "Western pumpkin," it has no connection to the West in terms of its place of origin. This is a name unique to Japan, as it was introduced from the United States.

Moreover, European pumpkins require very high temperatures to grow and are not well-established in Northern Europe , the British Isles, or regions with short or cool summers (Boswell, 1949). Therefore, as will be explained later, Japanese pumpkins are used in European pumpkin pies! This fact is the source of much confusion.

The primary use of the European pumpkin is for its edible fruit. Compared to the Japanese pumpkin, the European pumpkin is characterized by its sticky texture (Izumi, 2006).

It is eaten in tropical America, Japan, and parts of the United States (Boswell, 1949), as well as in Africa, India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (Ferriol & Nuez, 2004). It is particularly popular in Japan, where it is used almost interchangeably with the Japanese pumpkin (Nihonkabocha), which will be discussed later. It is used in dishes such as simmered pumpkin, pumpkin soup, pumpkin tempura, and thinly sliced pumpkin in salads. Ironically, in the West, the Japanese pumpkin is preferred as food, as will be discussed later.

Rich in nutrients, regardless of variety, it is an excellent source of highly beneficial dietary fiber and minerals such as potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, silicon, iron, and zinc to supplement your diet (Czech et al., 2018).

Furthermore, according to records for varieties within Japan, a comparison of β-carotene equivalents per 100 g of edible portion shows that while the pepo pumpkin (Kinshiuri) contains 49 μg and the Japanese pumpkin contains 730 μg, the Western pumpkin contains 4000 μg, which is approximately 5.6 times more (Fujita, 2010).

Furthermore, while the vitamin C content of pepo pumpkin (Kinshiuri) is 11 μg and that of Japanese pumpkin is 16 μg, that of European pumpkin is approximately three times higher at 43 μg, exceeding the vitamin C content of large tomatoes.

Pumpkin seeds are also used for food and, when roasted, are rich in protein, fat, and vitamin B1.

What are the uses of Japanese pumpkins?

Japanese pumpkins, being native to Central America, were long used by Native Americans and were an important food plant, ranking second only to corn and beans in many parts of the American economy before the colonial era (Boswell, 1949). The flowers, seeds, and flesh were all edible.

However, unlike the European pumpkin, it was cultivated and used early on in North America by Native Americans, along with the pepo pumpkin. On the other hand, it never reached South America.

It was after the arrival of Columbus (1492-) and the "Columbian Exchange" that it began to spread throughout the world via Europe.

Japanese pumpkins can withstand drought and frost during their flowering season, and although they are tropical plants, they are more cold-hardy than European pumpkins, making them the most popular pumpkin variety in Europe. European pumpkin pies use Japanese pumpkins. They are also consumed in many countries, including the United States, Mexico, India, China, and Brazil (Men et al., 2021).

Japanese pumpkins arrived in Japan before European pumpkins. It is believed that the introduction of Japanese pumpkins began in 1542 when a Portuguese ship drifted ashore in Bungo Province, and in 1549, they presented Japanese pumpkins to Otomo Sorin, who applied for permission to trade (Nishi, 1980; Fujita, 2010).

Otomo Sorin was a samurai and daimyo of Bungo Province (present-day Oita Prefecture) from the Sengoku period to the Azuchi-Momoyama period. He is known for actively adopting Christianity and Western culture by conducting trade with the Nanban (Southern Barbarians) from Kyushu, which he ruled as a Christian daimyo.

It is well known that the word "kabocha" (pumpkin) originates from "Cambodia," and it is said that the pumpkins introduced by Portuguese ships at that time were produced in the country of Cambodia (post-Angkor Cambodia) (Aoba, 2000).

It is believed that the pumpkin arrived in Nagasaki in 1573, and its cultivation began to spread widely among farmers, gradually spreading throughout Japan. Varieties such as the Tsurukubi pumpkin, Kikuza pumpkin, and Shishigatani pumpkin originated from this indigenous variety. Other varieties include the Kurokawa pumpkin (Hyuga pumpkin) and the Kogiku pumpkin.

It seems that the Japanese pumpkin (Nihonkabocha) was named as such because it was introduced to Japan before the European pumpkin (European pumpkin) and many indigenous varieties developed and diversified. However, considering that it did not originally exist in Japan and has become a minor vegetable in Japan today, it can be said that the name is misleading.

During and after World War II in the Pacific, Japanese pumpkins were an important food source. While today we imagine simmered pumpkin dishes made with sweet Western pumpkins, back then, they were made with Japanese pumpkins and had a much milder flavor.

Although the aforementioned varieties remain as traditional vegetables, they may seem quite minor in Japan. However, considering that Japanese pumpkins are used in pumpkin puree, even though many are imported from overseas, and that they are frequently used as an ingredient in commercially available pumpkin pie mixes and in sweets and desserts sold around Halloween, they continue to be a part of our diet in various forms.

The current primary use of Japanese pumpkins is for their fruit. Compared to Western pumpkins, Japanese pumpkins are characterized by their milder flavor. This may be related to the fact that the carbohydrate content in the flesh of Japanese pumpkins is high at 78.641 TP3T, significantly higher than that of Western pumpkins (69.511 TP3T) (Men et al., 2021).

In addition to carbohydrates, dietary fiber (such as pectin), vitamins A, C, and E, it is also rich in minerals (such as manganese, magnesium, and potassium).

In Japan, as mentioned above, pumpkins are considered to have less nutritional value than European pumpkins and are therefore poorly regarded (Fujita, 2010). However, overseas, their nutritional content has been studied in detail and they are attracting attention (Men et al., 2021). This may be due to differences between Japanese and European varieties.

What are the uses of pumpkins?

The pepo pumpkin, also native to Central America (Mexico), was used by Native Americans, with the oldest known records dating back 8,000 to 10,000 years ago in Oaxaca, southern Mexico, and approximately 7,000 years ago in Ocampo, Tamaulipas, Mexico (Nee, 1990). Along with the Japanese pumpkin, it held a position second only to corn and beans in many parts of the pre-colonial American economy (Boswell, 1949). The flowers, seeds, and flesh were all edible.

It was after the arrival of Columbus (1492-) and the "Columbian Exchange" that the pepo pumpkin began to spread throughout North America and the rest of the world. There is a record of a variety of pepo pumpkin being described in Germany in 1552.

A vast number of varieties have been developed for edible and ornamental purposes (Gong et al., 2012), and it has become particularly popular in Italy, where the zucchini variety was created in the late 19th century. Unlike other pumpkins, it is harvested in the summer, and in Europe and America, it is considered a type of summer squash. Because the unripe fruit and flowers of zucchini, which are high in water content, are eaten, few people may realize that it is a type of pumpkin. Ratatouille, a French dish, is a representative dish that uses zucchini.

Also, the Jack-o'-lanterns used for Halloween are not made from European pumpkins, but from a variety of pepo pumpkin called Connecticut Field Pumpkin. The ornamental pumpkin, a subspecies of pepo pumpkin, is purely for decoration and does not taste good.

Halloween originated from the Samhain harvest festival of the Celts, which later incorporated Christian elements. Jack-o'-lanterns were made to ward off evil spirits by acting as substitutes, but originally sugar beets or turnips were used. Pumpkins began to be used around the time Celtic immigrants moved to the United States. The story of Jack is a fictional tale.

Pepo pumpkins were first introduced to Japan after the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), with varieties from North China being brought in, but they did not become very popular (Nishi, 1980). The Kinshiuri variety, whose flesh separates into thin, thread-like strands, is likely from this period.

Rather, zucchini and Connecticut field pumpkins arrived in Japan after World War II as part of Western culture, through a completely different route, and became established without being recognized as pepo pumpkins (Izumi, 2006). Zucchini was first imported from the United States around the late 1970s (early 1970s) when Italian cuisine became popular (Nogyo Sangyo Bunka Kyokai, 2004).

While the primary use is for the edible fruit, zucchini is unique in that its flowers are also eaten (known as "flower zucchini"), and some varieties, such as Connecticut Field Pumpkins and Ornamental Pumpkins, are purely ornamental and not tasty to eat.

How are pumpkin seeds dispersed? Were pumpkin fruits eaten by extinct animals?!

Pumpkin fruits are nutritious and a savior for humans, but there is one big question (Kistler et al., 2015).

In the natural world, what animals eat the fruit and then disperse the seeds through their feces?

At first glance, you might think that wild animals could eat pumpkins once they're ripe, but even when ripe, pumpkins are covered in a hard rind and are inedible to most animals.

Furthermore, it is known that the fruit pulp produces cucurbitacin, a triterpenoid compound that is cytotoxic and has a strong bitter taste, thus repelling small mammals.

Moreover, even if they are eaten, unless the animal swallows the seeds whole, they won't end up in its feces, preventing the species from expanding its habitat. The worst-case scenario is when animals, like rats, only eat the seeds.

In fact, recent research suggests that pumpkins are not the ancestors of currently existing animals, but rather were eaten and dispersed by large mammals (megafauna) that lived on the American continent before the Holocene epoch.

In fact, intact pumpkin seeds have been found in the dung deposits of mastodons (primitive elephant-like creatures). It certainly seems that mastodons could easily eat the fruit by stepping on it.

All of these large mammals were driven to extinction by Native Americans after the Holocene epoch, but now Native Americans are acting as seed dispersers by cultivating them (Spengler, 2020).

This phenomenon, where the current environment and adaptations are out of sync, is called "ecological anachronism," and it is believed that the same phenomenon occurs in avocados, cacao, American mulberry, American honey locust, and sachalinensis.

References

Aoba, Takashi. 2000. Selected Works of Takashi Aoba, Vol. 1: Japanese Vegetables. Yasaka Shobo, Tokyo. 311pp. ISBN: 9784896944563

Boswell, VR 1949. Our Vegetable Travelers. The National Geographic Magazine 96(2): 145-216. ISSN: 0027-9358, https://www.plantanswers.com/publications/vegetabletravelers/index.html

Bisognin, DA 2002. Origin and evolution of cultivated cucurbits. Ciência Rural 32: 715-723. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782002000400028

Czech, A., Stępniowska, A., Wiącek, D., Sujak, A., & Grela, ER 2018. The content of selected nutrients and minerals in some cultivars of Cucurbita maxima. British Food Journal 120(10): 2261-2269. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-10-2017-0599

Ferriol, M., Picó, B., & Nuez, F. 2004. Morphological and molecular diversity of a collection of Cucurbita maxima landraces. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 129(1): 60-69. https://doi.org/10.21273/JASHS.129.1.60

Fujita, Satoshi. 2010. Cultural History of Keisen Vegetables (7): Pumpkins—Carotene-Rich Healthy Vegetables. Horticultural Culture 7: 42-49. ISSN: 1882-5044, https://keisen.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/934

Gong, L., Paris, HS, Nee, MH, Stift, G., Pachner, M., Vollmann, J., & Lelley, T. 2012. Genetic relationships and evolution in Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin, squash, gourd) as revealed by simple sequence repeat polymorphisms. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 124(5): 875-891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-011-1752-z

Izumi, Mikio. 2006. How vegetables are eaten around the world and in Japan—the same vegetables differ greatly. Journal of the Japanese Society for Food Preservation Science 32(6): 297-304. https://doi.org/10.5891/jafps.32.6_297

Kistler, L., Newsom, LA, Ryan, TM, Clarke, AC, Smith, BD, & Perry, GH 2015. Gourds and squashes (Cucurbita spp.) adapted to megafaunal extinction and ecological anachronism through domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(49): 15107-15112. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516109112

RBG Kew. 2026. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Salehi, B., Sharifi-Rad, J., Capanoglu, E., Adrar, N., Catalkaya, G., Shaheen, S., … & Cho, WC 2019. Cucurbita plants: from farm to industry. Applied Sciences 9(16): 3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163387

Spengler, RN 2020. Anthropogenic seed dispersal: rethinking the origins of plant domestication. Trends in Plant Science 25(4): 340-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.005

Nee, M. 1990. The domestication of cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae). Economic Botany 44(Suppl 3): 56-68. https://doi.org/10.1007BF02860475

Rural Culture Association. 2004. Encyclopedia of Vegetable Gardening (2nd Edition, Vol. 20: 70 Specialty Vegetables). Rural Culture Association, Tokyo. 434pp. ISBN: 9784540041235

Men , X., Choi, SI, Han, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-020-00835-2

Nishi, Sadao. 1980. All About Vegetables (4). Cooking Science 13(4): 271-279. https://doi.org/10.11402/cookeryscience1968.13.4_271

Wu, ZY, Raven, PH, & Hong, DY (Eds.). 2011. Flora of China (Vol. 19 Cucurbitaceae through Valerianaceae, with Annonaceae and Berberidaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. ISBN: 9781935641049

In Japan, except in some regions, eating insects is extremely rare, and it can be said that it is almost unheard of among the younger generation, especially in urban areas.

While some advocate for eating insects to prepare for food shortages, cries of "Absolutely not!" are heard, mainly on social media. Even though I work with insects, I also feel a sense of pity for them and have reservations about eating them.

That being said, the truth is that, unintentionally, Japanese people eat insects (or components extracted from them) every day. Representative examples include cochineal, which contains carminic acid produced by the cochineal insect, and shellac, which is made by heat treatment or solvent extraction of lac, produced by the lac insect.

To put it simply, cochineal is used as a pure dye in food and cosmetics, lac is used as a dye in food, and shellac is used as a wax in many applications such as adhesives, food polishing agents, wood finishes, and SP records.

Cochineal is generally safe, but it's important to be aware that in rare cases, people who regularly use cosmetics containing cochineal may experience allergic reactions.

The reason cochineal continues to be used despite containing insects is likely because safe and inexpensive artificial colorings have yet to be found.

This article will explain cochineal insects and lac insects, as well as the components they produce.

What is the difference between cochineal insects and lac insects?

First, let's clarify the differences between cochineal insects and lac insects, which are often confused.

The cochineal insect (also known as the cochineal insect), Dactylopius coccus, belongs to the family Dactylopiidae within the superfamily Coccoidea and is distributed from the southwestern United States through Mexico to the temperate regions of South America (Schowalter, 2025). It is now sometimes cultivated in China. It uses prickly pear cacti (Cactaceae) as its host, inserting its stylets into the phloem tubes (tubes that transport sugars produced by photosynthesis throughout the plant) and feeding on the phloem sap.

On the other hand, the lac insect Kerria lacca (Laccifer lacca is a synonym) is classified in the family Kerriidae within the superfamily Coccoidea and is distributed in China, South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar) (Watanabe, 2003; Takekawa, 2010; Bashir et al., 2022). Its hosts are extremely diverse, with over 400 plant species reported worldwide, but commercially, three species are used: Butea monosperma (Fabaceae), Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae), and Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). Like the lac insect, it lives by inserting its stylets into the phloem tubes and feeding on the phloem sap.

Although they both cling to plants in a similar way, cochineal insects are originally from the Americas, while lac insects are found in Eurasia. You can see that the plants they utilize and their habitats are completely different.

The components produced are also different.

Cochineal insects produce carminic acid, which is both a defensive substance and a pigment, while lac insects produce a waxy substance called lac, which contains laccaic acid as a pigment.

Why did the cochineal insect evolve to produce carminic acid?

It is believed that carminic acid was originally secreted by the cochineal insect to protect itself from carnivorous insects such as ants, ladybugs, and lacewings, as well as microorganisms (Schowalter, 2025). The defense provided by carminic acid is strong, and very few species prey on it.

However, some insects are known to still prey on cochineal insects. The larvae of the carnivorous moth Laetilia coccidivora, a member of the Pyralidae family, are known to prey on cochineal insects by spitting out a sac containing carminic acid. However, even in this case, their survival rate, development rate, and reproduction rate are significantly worse than when they feed on cochineal insects that do not contain carminic acid.

While carminic acid is merely a pigment for humans, it is actually an important component for cochineal insects.

The fact that cochineal insects themselves can turn red is thought to be due to carminic acid, and it is possible that this is an "honest signal" warning color, intended to convey "the redder, the more poisonous!" by possessing both pigment and defense properties, but this has not been thoroughly investigated. Examples of warning colors that serve as honest signals by combining pigment and antioxidant properties are well known (Blount et al., 2009).

What are the differences in the uses of cochineal lac and shellac?

Cochineal insects are killed with boiling water and dried to produce "black cochineal," and crushing black cochineal yields "cochineal," which contains carminic acid. For dyeing purposes, carminic acid is further chemically reacted to synthesize "carmine" (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Schowalter, 2025).

On the other hand, the lac produced by the lac insect initially clumps together on the branches of the host plant, but the lac removed from the branch is called "stick lac" (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). This stick lac can be washed and dried to produce what is called "seed lac," and further heat treatment or solvent extraction can produce "shellac," a pure wax that does not contain insect remains and has reduced or eliminated laccaic acid.

It's important to note that rack and shellac are different things.

How do these ultimately produced ingredients differ in their uses?

To put it simply, cochineal is used as a pure dye in food and cosmetics, lac is used as a dye in food, and shellac is used as a wax in many applications such as adhesives, food polishing agents, wood finishes, and SP records.

Because cochineal produces a vibrant red color, it was originally used for dyeing cloth, and there are records of its use in Central and South America from at least 600 AD (Schowalter, 2025). When Columbus visited the Americas during the Age of Discovery, it was highly valued by European nobility because of its superior strength and durability compared to older dyes, and it eventually became inexpensive and spread throughout the world. It was also introduced to Japan through trade with the West during the Momoyama and Edo periods, and was used by Sengoku warlords (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). However, with the advent of aniline dyes, its use for dyeing cloth declined, and other uses were developed.

In Japan today, cochineal is used as a food coloring agent in soft drinks, strawberry milk, alcohol, shaved ice syrup, confectionery, ham, sausages, and fish cakes, as well as in cosmetics such as lipstick, lip balm, blush, eyeshadow, and nail polish, and in art supplies. Note that in Japan, the cochineal used in food products is carminic acid, while in cosmetics it is carmine (Inomata, 2025).

Lac still contains a lot of laccaic acid, so it is used as a fabric dye and is known as lac dyeing (purple mineral dyeing) (Takekawa, 2010). Around 2000 BC, it was used in China and India as a dye and as a medicine called myrrh (traditional Chinese medicine). It had already been introduced to Japan during the Nara period and has been found in the Shōsōin Treasury (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). However, its use declined with the advent of aniline dyes and Western medicine.

In modern Japan, lac is added to food products and used to color sweets, bean paste, bacon, sausages, noodles, processed seafood, and jams.

Shellac was originally used as a finishing material because of its excellent properties for protecting and polishing wood. However, in the early 20th century, the developing electrical industry recognized its excellent properties as an electrical insulator, leading to increased demand. However, in 1907, when American Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite as a substitute, its use in that application declined (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003).

However, shellac's other uses have expanded in many directions, and in Japan today it is used in countless ways, including paints, adhesives, varnishes for stringed instruments and wooden furniture, granular chocolates and gums that don't stain hands, pharmaceutical tablets, a coating agent for roasted chestnuts, and SP records (Takekawa, 2010).

These insects have truly been supporting society from ancient times to the present day, constantly changing their form along the way.

Do Japanese people really eat cochineal insects? From the cultivation of cochineal insects to their eventual appearance on the dinner table as a food coloring agent.

Some people might wonder, "Do Japanese people actually eat cochineal insects?"

In other words, regardless of whether cochineal is used, the point is that it's merely an extracted chemical component, and not the cochineal insect itself. (Some people might find that off-putting, though...)

Unfortunately (?), we can proudly say that the Japanese eat scale insects (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Schowalter, 2025).

Cochineal insects harvested from prickly pear cacti are killed by soaking them in hot water or exposing them to sunlight or heat, and then dried for preservation until they reach approximately 301 TP3T of their raw weight. This is "black cochineal."

The powder produced by crushing black cochineal is called "cochineal." Approximately 70,000 insects are needed to produce one pound (0.45 kilograms) of cochineal dye (Miller, 2022).

When cochineal is boiled in ammonia water or sodium carbonate solution and alum is added, a red aluminum carminate precipitate forms. This aluminum carminate is "carmine."

Furthermore, by adding other ingredients such as tin chloride, citric acid, borax, and lime, you can create a variety of colors ranging from pink to purple.

In other words, it's almost certain that whole insects are being crushed and then applied to or incorporated into food and cosmetics.

On the other hand, while lac insect lacs also contain insect bodies, shellac consists almost entirely of its chemical components.

Are cochineal scale insects disgusting?

Whether or not cochineal insects are considered disgusting is, of course, subjective, but there are several factors that contribute to that perception.

First, scale insects typically infest leaves in dense clusters and produce a cottony waxy substance. This is thought to protect against moisture loss, excessive sunlight exposure, and predators such as ants, but it is what makes the leaves look unsightly.

Furthermore, in order to excrete the excess sugar absorbed through the phloem (and also as a reward for ants guarding them), the plant "urinates" (diabetes), which gets on the leaves, creating a sticky, viscous substance, and weakening the plant itself, resulting in an even dirtier appearance.

But eccentric people like me think, "It's so small and cute!"

Furthermore, you could say that it's thanks to scale insects that you can put on makeup while enjoying red drinks and sweets like macarons, and then take and post sparkling, "Instagrammable" photos on social media like Instagram.

Therefore, rather than simply dismissing them as "disgusting," I think it's not a bad idea to show gratitude and respect to those who provide us with food. It's certainly not a pleasant experience for the cochineal insects themselves, who are the ones being eaten. (Although, there's also the perspective that they are being bred and thus the species is surviving as a result.)

While it may evoke a physiological aversion, insects and cosmetics are surprisingly closely related, as evidenced by the use of galls (five-grain galls, sumac ear galls) of the sumac aphid Schlechtendalia chinensis for teeth blackening in Japanese history (Ezure et al., 1987).

What are the dangers of cochineal? Does it cause allergies?

However, there is also the practical problem of cochineal insects: the existence of allergies (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Inomata, 2025).

There are multiple patterns of cochineal allergies.

The first type is occupational inhalation exposure, where workers who are routinely exposed to cochineal dye or carmine through inhalation, such as those engaged in extracting dye from cochineal insects or handling carmine in cosmetics factories, develop allergies.

The second type is those who exhibit skin symptoms caused by cosmetics containing cochineal.

The third type is caused by oral ingestion of foods containing cochineal.

The worst-case scenario is a combination of the second and third types, where applying cosmetics containing cochineal to the face causes the immune system to mistakenly perceive the cosmetic as a "foreign substance that attacks the human body!" and memorize its molecular structure (immunological memory). The next time food containing cochineal is consumed, the immune system overreacts and attacks the body itself. This is called "anaphylactic shock."

Many researchers believe that the cause of this reaction is not carmine from cochineal, but rather residual proteins derived from the body fluids of the cochineal insect that are involved in the manifestation of IgE-mediated allergic symptoms. However, there are also reports of reactions to carmine, so there are various theories.

It is believed that this system originally evolved to react to parasites (Palm et al, 2012). In other words, if a protein is the cause, then this can be rephrased as a reaction that occurs because our bodies mistakenly identify cosmetics containing cochineal insect fluid as "parasites!"

While this may sound quite frightening, despite its widespread use, only 22 cases have been reported in Japan since it began to be documented in academic papers in Japan until 2018, and there have been no deaths (Takeo et al., 2018).

However, it's possible that the lack of awareness is the reason why this condition is occurring more frequently than it actually is, so if you feel anything unusual, be sure to consult a doctor.

Why is cochineal still being used?

Why is cochineal, which is considered "disgusting" and potentially causes allergic reactions, still being used?

In fact, there was a period when artificial red coloring was used, but from around the 1970s, reports on the relationship between coloring and hyperactivity in children, as well as cell and animal studies suggesting that certain dyes may increase the risk of cancer, began to emerge, and health concerns about these synthetic dyes started to grow (Miller, 2022).

These concerns ultimately led to the banning of some dyes, such as Red No. 2 and Red No. 4. However, some of these harmful effects were later revoked.

As a result, naturally derived colorants such as carminic acid have begun to gain popularity.

Natural colorants have a very long history, which can be considered to guarantee their safety to some extent. Furthermore, because the manufacturing process is already established, it is possible to produce them at a lower cost, both in terms of time and money.

However, in addition to the reasons mentioned above, there is a growing number of vegans, vegetarians, and animal rights activists in the United States who do not want to accidentally consume insect-derived products.

Furthermore, using large quantities of prickly pear cacti does not necessarily result in good production efficiency.

Therefore, methods for artificial synthesis are being researched, but practical application is still some time away.

References

Akiyama, Hiroshi & Sugimoto, Naoki. 2014. Food allergies caused by cochineal dye and carmine intake. Pharmacia 50(6): 522-527. https://doi.org/10.14894/faruawpsj.50.6_522

Bashir, NH, Chen, H., Munir, S., Wang, W., Chen, H., Sima, YK, & An, J. 2022. Unraveling the role of lac insects in providing natural industrial products. Insects 13(12): 1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13121117

Blount, JD, Speed, MP, Ruxton, GD, & Stephens, PA 2009. Warning displays may function as honest signals of toxicity. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276(1658): 871-877. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1407

Ezure, T., Katsura, K., Ten, M., Taguchi, H., Ikeda, M., Matsuzaki, A., & Suzuki, T. 1987. Concept and Case Reports of Ohaguro (Teeth Blackening). Iwate Medical University Dental Journal 12(2): 217-221. https://doi.org/10.20663/iwateshigakukaishi.12.2_217

Inomata, Naoko. 2025. Cochineal dye allergy. Allergy 74(3): 174-176. https://doi.org/10.15036/arerugi.74.174

Le Couteur, PC, & Burreson, J. 2003. Napoleon's buttons: How 17 molecules changed history. Tarcher, 384pp. ISBN: 9781585422203 [=2011. Spices, explosives, pharmaceuticals—17 chemical substances that changed world history. Chuokoron-Shinsha, Tokyo. 368pp. ISBN: 9784120043079]

Miller, BJ 2022. Cochineal, a red dye from bugs, moves to the lab. Knowable Magazine. ISSN: 2575-4459, https://doi.org/10.1146/knowable-032522-1

Palm, NW, Rosenstein, RK, & Medzhitov, R. 2012. Allergic host defences. Nature 484(7395): 465-472. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11047

Schowalter, TD 2025. Ecology, use, and management of cochineal insects (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae). Journal of Integrated Pest Management 16(1): pmaf033. https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmaf033

Takekawa, Yukiko. 2010. The Use of Shellac, a Natural Resinous Substance: Focusing on Shōsōin Treasures and Medicinal Properties. Osaka Science Museum Research Report 20: 65-70. https://www.sci-museum.jp/wp-content/themes/scimuseum2021/pdf/study/research/2010/pb20_065-070.pdf

Takeo, N., Nakamura, M., Nakayama, S., Okamoto, O., Sugimoto, N., Sugiura, S., … & Matsunaga, K. 2018. Cochineal dye-induced immediate allergy: review of Japanese cases and proposed new diagnostic chart. Allergology International 67(4): 496-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2018.02.012

Toko, Yukiko & Komashiro, Motoko. 2007. Natural red dyes. Journal of Life Engineering Research 9(1): 136-139. http://hdl.handle.net/10083/3267

Watanabe, Hiroyuki. 2003. Scale insects save tropical forests. Tokai University Press, Hadano. 136pp. ISBN: 9784486016182

I originally have a science background, but I enjoy reading world history content.

I've heard something that caught my attention. It's the theory that spices (spices excluding the stems, leaves, and flowers) don't have much antibacterial property, and that "spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat." I've always been skeptical about whether this is true.

Our investigation has concluded that this theory is highly unfounded. The reason is that spices are too expensive for ordinary people to use.

The medicinal properties of spices themselves are diverse, including antibacterial, antioxidant, appetite-stimulating, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the reason why wealthy people in Europe and America sought out spices from abroad during the Age of Discovery was likely for their exotic flavors and because they stimulated the secretion of addictive neurotransmitters (brain hormones) in the brain.

Ultimately, this develops into conspicuous consumption among the wealthy in Europe and America (consumption to flaunt wealth).

However, it is becoming clear that some spices can actually be used to mask the characteristic fishy smell, so they are not spoiled, but it is true that some spices can be used to eliminate fishy odors.

Another theory suggests that the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of spices, which enhance their preservation, were important. This is an explanation that you sometimes see in high school world history classes.

While it is true that spices have antibacterial properties, it is unlikely that there was a demand for them in Europe and America during the Age of Discovery. On the other hand, antibacterial properties were likely important in their places of origin.

This article will explain why the idea that spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat is false, and the real reason why European countries sought spices during the Age of Discovery.

What are the differences between Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum), Chinese pepper (Zanthoxylum sibiricum), and Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum ailanthoides)? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! What are their uses? What insects visit the flowers? Birds apparently love the seeds because they don't find them spicy!?

Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum), Japanese sansho, and Japanese sansho are common species in Japan, and Japanese pepper in particular remains an essential ingredient in cooking today. All belong to the genus Zanthoxylum in the Rutaceae family, and are very similar in that they have many thorns all over the plant and odd-pinnately compound leaves consisting of an odd number of leaflets. Japanese pepper has a distinctive aroma...

ecological-information.com

What's the difference between dill (yin-dill) and fennel (foeniculum vulgare)? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Dill and fennel both belong to the Apiaceae family, share a strong aroma throughout the plant, and are used both as herbs (leaves) and spices (fruits). Their leaves, in particular, are known as "fish herbs" and pair exceptionally well with fish dishes. Furthermore, they are also similar in morphology...

ecological-information.com

Why can we say that the theory that spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat during the Age of Discovery is false?

Why is the claim that "spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat" considered to have little basis in fact?

The biggest problem is that spices from the Age of Discovery were too expensive (Murphy, 2024).

Europe already had an abundance of native herbs used in cooking, such as sage, rosemary, and thyme, as well as strongly flavored vegetables like leeks and onions. However, "spices" (such as pepper, nutmeg, and cloves) could only be imported through the spice trade from the Middle East and Asia.

Exotic spices, popularized by returning Crusaders and pilgrims, were already in vogue as highly prized luxuries among the upper classes in the Middle Ages, even before the Age of Discovery. However, their relative rarity, prestige, and the long distances it took to reach tables in France and England made them extremely expensive. They were simply unaffordable for ordinary households.

Furthermore, most households could quickly slaughter and eat animals by raising livestock or fish, hunting, or commissioning these activities. Examples of livestock included geese, ducks, chickens, pigs, and sheep.

In addition, if you have any leftovers, there are preservation methods such as salting, smoking, drying, and honey-preserving. Jerky and ham are examples of this.

From the above, it can be concluded that medieval Europeans did not deliberately eat rotten meat.

However, it has been confirmed that essential oils extracted from the fruit (fennel seeds) of fennel (a type of spice native to the Mediterranean coast) and the kernels of nutmeg seeds (native to Southeast Asia) can actually eliminate the odor of meat and fish (Takahashi et al., 2004).

Therefore, while it remains possible that native European plants like fennel were used to remove animal or fishy odors, it's unlikely to be the smell of rotting meat.

Why did the misinformation spread?

Why did this claim circulate? An influential book is involved (Myers, 2006).

In 1939, J.C. Drummond and Anne Wilbraham published "The Englishman's Food: Five Centuries of English Diet," in which they suggested that the wealthy in medieval Europe (and cunning bakers and grocery shop owners) desperately needed spices, primarily because meat was starting to spoil and the spices masked the smell and flavor of stale ingredients.

However, Drummond was a biochemist, not an expert in medieval food culture. Furthermore, he assumed from the outset that medieval preservation techniques were rudimentary and that "the main purpose of spices was to mask flavors." His work lacked documentary evidence and relied heavily on misinterpretations and speculation.

However, the readability of his writing, combined with the authority he gained from his social standing, gave his books weight and made them an ideal reference for anyone wanting to casually research the history of food.

This theory, like a rumor spreading, created a chain of mentions where inaccurate information was repeated as if it were the truth.

Worst of all, the speaker heard the same inaccurate information from multiple sources, but failed to realize that it all stemmed from a single source, creating the misconception that this theory was the dominant one.

What was the real reason Europe sought spices from abroad during the Age of Discovery?

So what was the reason for seeking spices during the Age of Discovery (mid-15th to mid-17th centuries)?

The primary reason is probably that it's a "delicacy" and has an exotic taste.

This might seem a bit simplistic, but the tendency for wealthy people to become gourmets in search of new flavors and seek out rare ingredients is still observed today.

If it were simply delicious, that would be the end of it, but for example, although it is native to Central and South America, the capsaicin contained in the fruit of the chili pepper is known to stimulate the secretion of beta-endorphins and dopamine, which are types of neurotransmitters (brain hormones) in the brain and are also called brain narcotics, due to its spiciness (pain) (Fattori et al., 2016).

This can have an effect that, while not pathological, could be described as addiction.

Other examples of spices affecting brain hormones, although primarily based on animal studies, include the following:

These effects likely contributed to a stronger craving for spices (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003=2011).

As trade further developed and spices became even more expensive, the use of spices evolved into a way for the wealthy in Europe and America to flaunt their wealth and demonstrate that they could afford to use expensive spices on a daily basis (Freedman, 2005).

This corresponds to what is called "constancy consumption" in economics. This is not merely "showing off," but has been theorized in evolutionary biology as "handicap theory," and is known as an important motivation for consumption in humans (Miller, 2009=2017).

As described above, the reasons for seeking spices during the Age of Discovery likely evolved from the pursuit of delicacies to addiction and then to conspicuous consumption.

The reason Europe went to the trouble of obtaining spices by sea was that in the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire destroyed the Byzantine Empire and expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean, imposing extremely high tariffs. As a result, the supply of spices that had originally come in through the Eastern trade (Levant trade) between Islamic Qalimi merchants and Italian merchants in Venice was cut off.

As a result, the Portuguese and Spanish efforts to find spices unaffected by the Islamic world spread to the imperialist powers of the Netherlands, Britain, France, Germany, America, Italy, and Belgium, leading to colonial rule by Western powers around the world.

Is the antibacterial properties of spices related to the demand for spices?

However, and this is a bit complicated, while the reasons why Europeans and Americans sought spices during the Age of Discovery can be attributed to the pursuit of delicacies, their addictive nature, and their conspicuous consumption, the reasons why the indigenous people of those colonies used spices are likely different.

For the local people, unlike Westerners, spices grew naturally, were inexpensive, and were deeply integrated into their customs and food culture.

While taste and addictive properties are certainly contributing factors, the reasons for its long-term integration into the culture likely include its lipid-derived antioxidant, antibacterial, insecticidal, and animal-repellent properties, as well as its appetite-stimulating, anti-inflammatory, and odor-masking effects (Gottardi et al., 2016). Furthermore, although scientific proof is still lacking, it was also expected to play a role as a herbal medicine for specific organs.

In particular, antioxidant and antibacterial properties are thought to have been important for improving the preservation of food and for embalming corpses. Antibacterial properties have been proven in 99 major spices, including pepper, chili peppers, cloves, nutmeg, and sansho pepper.

Such antibacterial effects may not have been particularly valued in the European and American countries during the Age of Discovery.

However, as Dutch-Asian trade progressed from the 17th to the 18th centuries, and as a result of the expansion of trade and competition among merchants and companies, the prices of many commodities began to converge between regions. Colonial goods such as spices, tea, and sugar also spread to the general households in Europe and America (De Zwart, 2016), and became commonly consumed by ordinary households.

In Japan, after the Meiji Restoration (1853), spices originating from South America, such as chili peppers, were added to the existing Asian spices.

At this stage, some people may have started to become aware of its antibacterial properties and health benefits.

Since then, scientific research has advanced, proving that it actually has functions such as antibacterial properties and health benefits, and it has once again attracted attention.

Thus, the role of spices has changed in complex ways depending on the region and era. While the theory that spices were consumed for their odor-masking or antibacterial properties during the "Age of Discovery" is rather weak, it's important to note that spices themselves do have those effects.

References

Chauhan, S., Tiwari, A., Verma, A., Padhan, PK, Verma, S., & Gupta, PC 2024. Exploring the potential of saffron as a therapeutic agent in depression treatment: a comparative review. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 97(3): 365-381. https://doi.org/10.59249/XURF4540

De Zwart, P. 2016. Globalization in the early modern era: new evidence from the Dutch-Asiatic trade, c. 1600–1800. The Journal of Economic History 76(2): 520-558. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050716000553

Fattori, V., Hohmann, MS, Rossaneis, AC, Pinho-Ribeiro, FA, & Verri Jr, WA 2016. Capsaicin: current understanding of its mechanisms and therapy of pain and other pre-clinical and clinical uses. Molecules 21(7): 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21070844

Freedman, P. 2005. Spices and late-medieval European ideas of scarcity and value. Speculum 80(4): 1209-1227. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0038713400001391, https://gebeasley.org/famished/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/document-2-1.pdf

Garabadu, D., Shah, A., Ahmad, A., Joshi, VB, Saxena, B., Palit, G., & Krishnamurthy, S. 2011. Eugenol as an anti-stress agent: modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and brain monoaminergic systems in a rat model of stress. Stress 14(2): 145-155. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2010.521602

Gottardi, D., Bukvicki, D., Prasad, S., & Tyagi, AK 2016. Beneficial effects of spices in food preservation and safety. Frontiers in Microbiology 7: 186557. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01394

Hidayat, R., Wulandari, P., & Reagan, M. 2022. The potential of cinnamon extract (Cinnamomum burmanii) as anti-insomnia medication through hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis improvement in rats. Acta Medica Academica 51(2): 79-84. https://doi.org/10.5644/ama2006-124.375

Kim, CY, Seo, Y., Lee, C., Park, GH, & Jang, JH 2018. Neuroprotective effect and molecular mechanism of [6]-Gingerol against scopolamine-induced amnesia in C57BL/6 mice. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2018(1): 8941564. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8941564

Kulkarni, SK, & Dhir, A. 2010. An overview of curcumin in neurological disorders. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 72(2): 149-154. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.65012

Le Couteur, PC, & Burreson, J. 2003. Napoleon's buttons: How 17 molecules changed history. Tarcher, 384pp. ISBN: 9781585422203 [=2011. Spices, explosives, pharmaceuticals—17 chemical substances that changed world history. Chuokoron-Shinsha, Tokyo. 368pp. ISBN: 9784120043079]

Li, S., Wang, C., Li, W., Koike, K., Nikaido, T., & Wang, MW 2007. Antidepressant-like effects of piperine and its derivative, antiepilepsirine. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research 9(5): 421-430. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286020500384302

Miller, G. 2009. Spent: Sex, Evolution, and Consumer Behavior. Viking Adult, 384pp. ISBN: 9780670020621 [=2017. Consumer Capitalism! The Evolutionary Psychology of Show-offs. Keisou Shobo, 480pp. ISBN: 9784326299256]

Murphy, D. 2024, October 29. Did Medieval Kings Need Spice to Cover Up Rotten Food?. Youth in Food Systems. https://seeds.ca/schoolfoodgardens/13837-2/

Myers, D. 2006. Drummond's Rotten Meat: When Good Sources Go Bad. Medieval Cookery. https://www.medievalcookery.com/notes/drummond.pdf

Seneme, EF, Dos Santos, DC, Silva, EMR, Franco, YEM, & Longato, GB 2021. Pharmacological and therapeutic potential of myristicin: A literature review. Molecules 26(19): 5914. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26195914

Takahashi, YK, Nagayama, S., & Mori, K. 2004. Detection and masking of spoiled food smells by odor maps in the olfactory bulb. Journal of Neuroscience 24(40): 8690-8694. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2510-04.2004

Xu, J., Xu, H., Liu, Y., He, H., & Li, G. 2015. Vanillin-induced amelioration of depression-like behaviors in rats by modulating monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain. Psychiatry Research 225(3): 509-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.056

When you go to a yakiniku (Japanese barbecue) restaurant, you may come across four parts of the cow's stomach (fore-stomach) as a type of offal: mino, hachinosu, senmai, and giara.

Because it has a distinctive taste and is a type of offal, it's a love-it-or-hate-it kind of dish, but some people enjoy eating it because of its crunchy texture and how well it pairs with alcohol.

If you only eat them, you might not think much about their true nature or role, but they actually play an important role for ruminants, including cows.

This is essential knowledge for anyone involved in livestock farming, and it wouldn't hurt for the general public to know it as common sense.

However, the stomachs of ruminants have an overwhelming number of names, and I often find it difficult to understand the correspondence between their function and shape.

However, regardless of the sheer number of names, a closer examination reveals that the form, function, and order of these elements are highly logical and inevitable.

Here, I'll summarize some simple ways to remember the names and morphologies of the stomachs of ruminants.

To put it simply, the process is as follows: tripe (fermentation) → honeycomb tripe (separation) → omasum (absorption) → abomasum (digestion).

What is rumination? Why do animals ruminate and have a forestomach?

Rumination is the act of bringing grass that has been swallowed back into the mouth and chewing it again.

If you observe cows, you'll notice them constantly chewing for extended periods. This is because their stomachs are regurgitating food they've already swallowed, and they're chewing it again.

While this behavior may seem a little unpleasant to humans, it is an adaptation that gives herbivorous ruminants a significant advantage in grasslands.

The grass that is regurgitated does not simply return to the mouth as is. Ruminants have a stomach divided into four compartments, and the first stomach (the rumen) houses microorganisms, which ferment the grass they eat. Furthermore, the regurgitated grass is not exposed to stomach acid.

The plant cell walls containing polysaccharides such as cellulose and hemicellulose found in grass are extremely strong and normally only partially digestible by the digestive capabilities of ordinary animals. However, ruminants produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs, such as acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid) through fermentation, which serve as a source of nutrition (Mackie, 2002; Bao et al., 2019).

However, microorganisms cannot properly ferment large pieces of grass. Therefore, ruminants repeatedly bring the grass back into their mouths, physically destroying it with their teeth and thus assisting microbial fermentation (Matsuda et al., 2011).

This allows them to efficiently obtain nutrients from even small amounts of grass, surpassing other mammals (Hofmann, 1989).

Furthermore, while microorganisms themselves synthesize proteins for their own use, ruminants send urea from their food and urea synthesized in their liver to their first stomach, allowing microorganisms to synthesize proteins, which the ruminants then swallow, making them their own proteins (Hailemariam et al., 2021).

Furthermore, it has been pointed out that stomach microorganisms can break down some plant secondary metabolites (phenols, alkaloids, etc.), which helps broaden their diet and increase their tolerance to toxicity (Loh et al., 2020).

While this may seem like a highly efficient function, it is a function completely specialized for herbivores. For frugivorous, carnivorous, or omnivorous animals, it lacks flexibility and is not cost-effective to maintain such a voluminous stomach (a trade-off). Therefore, humans and pigs do not have such stomachs.

What are the different types of ruminants?

Academically, "true ruminants" (Ruminantia), which have four stomachs (quadriventricular stomachs), refer to animals belonging to the suborder Ruminantia of the order Artiodactyla. The suborder Ruminantia is divided into two suborders, the infraorder Machodea and the infraorder Euruminantia, and six families, with approximately 200 extant species (Bao et al., 2019). The major families and representative examples are as follows:

• Bovidae: Includes genera such as cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes, and antelopes.
• Family Cervidae: Includes genera such as deer (Japanese deer), moose, and reindeer.
• Family Giraffidae: Giraffes and okapis.
• Pronghorn family (Antilocapridae): Pronghorn.
• Family Moschidae: Includes the genus *Musk deer*, etc.
• Family Tragulidae: Includes the genus Tragulidae, etc.

However, there are other animals that perform rumination (chewing the cud) and foregut fermentation, even though they do not have a four-chambered stomach. These animals have evolved convergently from different lineages and are therefore not usually considered "ruminants." Compared to ruminants, they have simpler stomachs and are less efficient at absorbing nutrients from grass.

The Camelidae family (camels, llamas, alpacas, etc.) belongs to the order Cetartiodactyla, but is part of the suborder Neopoda (cameloid suborder). They generally perform digestion that is "similar to rumination," but their stomach has three chambers and lacks the absorption function of the third stomach (lobular stomach) in ruminants (Fowler, 2008). They evolved separately from the ruminant suborder.

Although hippopotamuses belong to the order Cetartiodactyla, they are closely related to whales as they belong to the order Cetacea-Hippomorpha, and while they do not ruminate, they perform forestomach fermentation, which involves microbial fermentation in the forestomach (Clauss et al., 2004).

Many large marsupials (e.g., red kangaroos, large Australian macropods) perform foregum fermentation in the foregum, but do not engage in rumination in the usual sense (regular, repetitive re-chewing) (Vendl et al., 2017). However, there are individual records of regurgitation and re-chewing, which is called pseudo-rumination or merycism. Merycism is much shorter and less consistent than rumination, and is therefore often distinguished from rumination.

The proboscis monkey, Nasalis larvatus, also feeds on leaves and fruits and performs mericism and foregum fermentation (Matsuda et al., 2011).

The hoazin (Opisthocomus hoazin) is a bird, but it is a very unique example of a bird that performs strong microbial fermentation in an enlarged foregum (crop). Its chemical fermentation products (volatile fatty acids) and microbial communities are similar to those of mammals that ferment their foregums, but it does not ruminate (Grajal, 1995). It has been reported that it feeds its offspring substances that have been partially broken down and fermented from its food.

List of names and functions of the stomachs (fore-stomachs) of ruminants

Below is a table summarizing the naming of ruminant stomach parts based on their order, appearance, and their roles in relation to grilled meat.

It can be seen that fermentation, separation, absorption, and digestion occur from the first to the fourth stomach.

How do you remember the name and function of the first stomach (rumen, tumor, or stomach tumor)?

The first stomach is called a tumorous stomach in terms of its appearance, tripe in yakiniku (Japanese barbecue), and rumen in English.

The most distinctive feature of the first stomach is its significantly enlarged, lumpy appearance compared to the other stomach parts, which is why it is called a tumor stomach.

The name "mino" in yakiniku (Japanese barbecue) comes from the fact that when it's opened up, it resembles a "straw raincoat" (mino).

This morphology is closely related to the role of the first stomach.

The first stomach contains microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, archaea, and fungi) that ferment cellulose and starch, producing volatile fatty acids (VFAs; acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid). VFAs are the main energy source, and the microorganisms also supply proteins and vitamins (Perez et al., 2024). Lumen gas is expelled through movement (stirring) and belching (eructation).

In other words, it is thought that the first stomach is specially enlarged, like a "bump" or "skin," to expand the habitat for fermentation-promoting microorganisms.

Furthermore, numerous papillae develop on the inner surface of the rumen, increasing the surface area and aiding in VFA absorption (Pokhrel & Jiang, 2024).

The English word "rumen" is borrowed from the Latin word "rūmen." While there are several theories about its etymology, it is generally believed to originate from the Proto-Italic *roug(s)mən ~ *rug(s)mən < Proto-Indo-European *h₁rewg-, *h₁rewǵ- "to burp" (Wiktionary contributors, 2026).

This name also accurately describes the role of the rumen, where methane is mainly produced by the reduction of hydrogen (H₂) and methylated compounds by methanogenic archaea. This generates rumen gas, which mainly consists of carbon dioxide (CO₂) 45-75% and methane (CH₄) 20-35%, and ruminants expel this gas by belching (Zhang et al., 2020).

While burps containing methane from cows are sometimes considered a problem due to their role as greenhouse gases, this can be attributed to the rumen (first stomach).

The first stomach can be easily remembered if you think of it as a lumpy, cloven structure that houses microorganisms and is where unnecessary burps are produced.

As mentioned above, microorganisms also play a role in protein synthesis and detoxification of plant secondary metabolites (phenols, alkaloids, etc.).

How can you remember the name and function of the second stomach (reticulum, honeycomb tripe, or stomach cavity)?

The second stomach is called the reticulum in English, while the tripe is called honeycomb tripe in grilled meat.

The terms "reticulous stomach" and "honeycomb stomach" come from the fact that the mucous membrane of the stomach lining is arranged in a hexagonal, honeycomb-like pattern.

The English word "reticulum" is borrowed from the Latin word "rēticulum," meaning "net," and derives from the Latin word "rēte" ("net, snare") + -culum (diminutive suffix) < Proto-Italic *rēti- < Proto-Indo-European *h₁reh₁- meaning "separate, loose." It is cognate with the English word "reticle," which refers to the aiming line on a gun scope or microscope (Wiktionary contributors, 2026).

In other words, all of these originate from the fact that they have a polygonal, network-like structure.

This morphology is also deeply related to the role of the second stomach.

The second stomach contracts to separate small particles and the liquid phase and send them to the next passage, while sending back larger particles for rumination (re-chewing) (Song et al, 2024). The rumen and reticulum function in conjunction and are collectively called the "reticulorumen" or "ruminoreticulum."

During this sorting process, the multi-chambered spatial arrangement created by the pillars, which are sometimes called honeycomb or mesh-like structures, acts like a "shallow cage," controlling the flow rate and sorting efficiency.

In other words, larger particles remain inside the basket and are returned to the first stomach, while smaller particles and liquids flow to the third stomach and beyond. Conversely, digestive function is minimal.

Due to these characteristics, foreign objects such as metal can easily become lodged, which can lead to a disease called wound reticulogastroperitonitis (hardware disease), especially in cattle.

The second stomach is easier to remember if you think of it as an organ that sorts out food that needs to be ruminated, with a honeycomb-like network structure.

How do you remember the name and function of the third stomach (lobe stomach, omason)?

The third stomach is called "leaf stomach" in terms of its appearance, "senmai" in yakiniku (grilled meat), and "omason" in English.

The term "leaf stomach" comes from its structure, which consists of many layers of folds (thin, plate-like tissues) that resemble leaves or petals. The term "double-leaf stomach" is similar.

The name "senmai" is said to originate from its appearance, which looks like it has "a thousand" folds overlapping inside. There is also a theory that it comes from the Korean word "jeonyeob" (千葉/千枚), but the meaning is roughly the same.

In other words, they stem from almost the same characteristics.

This morphology is also deeply related to the role of the third stomach.

The third stomach absorbs water, electrolytes, and some VFAs, increasing the solid content ratio of the digested food before sending it to the fourth stomach. It can be said that it removes liquid and separates even finer particles (Pérez et al., 2023).

At this time, a large absorption surface is created by numerous leaves (laminae), enabling efficient absorption of water and VFAs.

The third stomach is easier to remember if you think of it as having countless leaf-like folds that appear to be thousands of leaves, and that it absorbs the liquid portion before the intestines.

The word omasum is a loanword from the Latin omāsum, meaning "bull's stomach." The Latin word is thought to be derived from Gaulish, which in turn was borrowed from Carthaginian, which in turn is thought to be derived from the Proto-Semitic *ḥamṯ- meaning "abdomen" (Wiktionary contributors, 2026).

The meaning of "Omason" has changed significantly from its original meaning.

How can you remember the name of the fourth stomach (abomasum, giara, or abomasum) and what is its function?

The fourth stomach is called "wrinkled stomach" based on its appearance, "giara" in the context of grilled meat, and "abomasum" in English.

The term "wrinkled stomach" comes from the fact that the mucous membrane has fine folds.

The term "true stomach" comes from the fact that it has the same function as the normal stomach of animals other than ruminants.

The fourth stomach is a "true stomach" with a glandular mucosa that secretes hydrochloric acid and pepsin, which acid-hydrolyze microbial and dietary proteins to prepare them for absorption in the small intestine (Ash, 1961). In this sense, it is "genuine."

Furthermore, the presence of wrinkles in the fourth stomach also has significance.

The folded folds in the stomach are folded when empty and unfold when full, increasing the gastric volume (variable volume). The folds also improve the efficiency of stomach wall movement (mixing and stirring), increasing the contact surface between acid and contents, thus facilitating digestion. These are not unique features and are consistent with the general function of the "rugae" of the stomach, including in humans.

Furthermore, the folding of the mucous membrane increases the surface area that accommodates the gastric glands, which secrete gastric juices such as hydrochloric acid and pepsin, allowing for more efficient secretion of acids, enzymes, and mucus.

Therefore, it's easier to remember that the fourth stomach is a "true stomach" with the same chemical digestion function for proteins as other mammals, and that it has gastric glands in its wrinkled folds that serve to temporarily store food.

Abomasum originates from the New Latin abomāsum < ab- "away from" + omāsum "bull's stomach." Therefore, it means "stomach away from the omason (third stomach)" (Wiktionary contributors, 2026).

As for the name "giara," a theory circulating on the internet suggests that it originated from "gibara," meaning "false stomach," because it functions like an intestine despite being the stomach.

However, it is the third stomach that functions like an intestine, while the fourth stomach is the stomach itself, as mentioned above, so this origin theory is not very convincing. It would be more understandable if it was confused with the third stomach, but there is no evidence to support that.

Another theory suggests that the name originated from "gyara" (gyaru) → "giara" (giara) because it was a payment (guarantee) received by people working at U.S. military bases (Tanabe, 2016), but the historical background is unclear, and this theory is also questionable.

References

Ash, RW 1961. Acid secretion by the abomasum and its relation to the flow of food material in the sheep. The Journal of Physiology 156(1): 93-111. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1961.sp006660

Bao, W., Lei, C., & Wen, W. 2019. Genomic insights into ruminant evolution: from past to future prospects. Zoological Research 40(6): 476-487. https://doi.org/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2019.061

Clauss, M., Schwarm, A., Ortmann, S., Alber, D., Flach, EJ, Kühne, R., … & Hofer, H. 2004. Intake, ingesta retention, particle size distribution and digestibility in the hippopotamidae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 139(4): 449-459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.10.002

Fowler, ME 2008. Camelids are not ruminants. In: ME Fowler, & RE Miller (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine (6th ed., pp. 375-385). Saunders. ISBN: 9781416057598, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-141604047-7.50049-X

Grajal, A. 1995. Structure and function of the digestive tract of the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin): a folivorous bird with foregut fermentation. The Auk 112(1): 20-28. https://doi.org/10.2307/4088763

Hailemariam, S., Zhao, S., He, Y., & Wang, J. 2021. Urea transport and hydrolysis in the rumen: a review. Animal Nutrition 7(4): 989-996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2021.07.002

Hofmann, RR 1989. Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia 78(4): 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00378733

Loh, ZH, Ouwerkerk, D., Klieve, AV, Hungerford, NL, & Fletcher, MT 2020. Toxin degradation by rumen microorganisms: a review. Toxins 12(10): 664. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12100664

Mackie, RI 2002. Mutualistic fermentative digestion in the gastrointestinal tract: diversity and evolution. Integrative and Comparative Biology 42(2): 319-326. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/42.2.319

Matsuda, I., Murai, T., Clauss, M., Yamada, T., Tuuga, A., Bernard, H., & Higashi, S. 2011. Regurgitation and remastication in the foregut-fermenting proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus). Biology Letters 7(5): 786-789. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0197

Perez, HG, Stevenson, CK, Lourenco, JM, & Callaway, TR 2024. Understanding rumen microbiology: an overview. Encyclopedia 4(1): 148-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010013

Pérez, W., Duro, S., & Gündemir, O. 2023. Anatomical Differences in the Omasum of Weaning Calves Fed with Different Diets. Anatomia 2(2): 176-188. https://doi.org/10.3390/anatomia2020016

Pokhrel, B., & Jiang, H. 2024. Postnatal growth and development of the rumen: integrating physiological and molecular insights. Biology 13(4): 269. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13040269

Song, Y., Lan,

Tanabe, Shintaro. 2016. On Beef. Poplar Publishing, Tokyo. 169pp. ISBN: 9784591152461

Vendl, C., Munn, A., Leggett, K., & Clauss, M. 2017. Merycism in western gray (Macropus fuliginosus) and red kangaroos (Macropus rufus). Mammalian Biology 86: 21-26. https://doi.org/10.2307/4088763

Wiktionary contributors. 2026, January 22. Wiktionary. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Main_Page

Zhang, Z., Wang, Y., Si, X., Cao, Z., Li, S., & Yang, H. 2020. Rumen methanogenesis, rumen fermentation, and microbial community response to nitroethane, 2-nitroethanol, and 2-nitro-1-propanol: an in vitro study. Animals 10(3): 479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10030479

In short, Adlerian psychology can be described as "a psychology that fosters the ability to live in cooperation with others (community feeling) by choosing one's own life (self-determination), acting in accordance with one's purpose (teleology), and letting go of unnecessary control over others (separation of tasks)."

However, his psychology is buried among many self-help books, and many people may find it somewhat dubious. In fact, even in later generations, his ideas tend to be forgotten and are not quoted even when he says the same things.

Indeed, Adler's ideas are based more on a synthesization of his own clinical experience than on a series of scientific verifications. Furthermore, they address not only facts but also themes beyond the realm of science, such as "how should one live?", and thus have aspects that are closer to philosophy. In that sense, some argue that it is not science.

This article will examine the extent to which Adlerian fundamental factual concepts are accepted in evolutionary biology, psychology, behavioral economics, neuroscience, and brain science. It is based on Miller & Dillman (2016), with additional papers added. Citations of papers mentioned in Miller & Dillman (2016) will be omitted.

In conclusion, the general direction is the same, but there are some differences in our views on conflict and free will.

About Adler and Adlerian psychology

Alfred Adler was a psychologist born in 1870 and died in 1937. The mainstream of psychology during his time was based on the idea that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, traumas, and physiological factors)."

For example, Freud emphasized "unconscious desires" and "sexual impulses" as causes. Psychiatry, too, followed a style of "recording symptoms and classifying cause and effect," essentially relying on "accumulating facts." As Adler interacted with patients as a physician, he began to have serious doubts about this "causal explanationism." This is what is called "causal theory."

Adler began to question this. In his youth, he started as an ophthalmologist and internist, treating many patients with lung diseases and tuberculosis. One day, he noticed that even with the same disease, the degree of recovery varied greatly from patient to patient. "Why is it that only those with a 'will to live' recover, even though they have the same disease?" The realization that this could not be explained by mere "physical differences" became Adler's first turning point. In other words, the idea began to take root in him that "people are not passive beings, but rather choose their own way of life." This is what is called "teleology."

After becoming a psychiatrist, Adler developed this idea, applying it to emotions and behavior as well. He parted ways with Freud and founded what is now known as Adlerian psychology, or "individual psychology."

Adlerian psychology is remarkably progressive in that it emphasizes one's own life and individuality, while advocating for exploring connections with society by utilizing one's abilities. I believe it is a very important field of psychology and philosophy, alongside the early Buddhism of Gautama Siddhartha (Buddha/Shakyamuni) in northern India in the 6th century BC, and the Stoic philosophy that began with Zeno in ancient Greece in the early 3rd century BC and spread throughout ancient Greece and Rome, as it helps to let go of the Western notion of pursuing only individual happiness and the extreme Japanese notion of "the nail that sticks out gets hammered down."

Is there any scientific basis for the concept of "community feeling"?

One of the core beliefs in Adlerian psychology is the idea that individuals have an innate capacity for social concern.

In Adlerian psychology, this is called "social interest," and it represents the feeling of being a part of society—whether family, community, or workplace—and the desire to connect with others and contribute. This can range from a family-centered perspective to a global one.

In short, Adlerian psychology argues that this lack of a sense of community—that is, the lack of the feeling that "I am contributing to communities on various scales"—is largely related to feelings of anxiety, unhappiness, isolation, inferiority complexes, and self-centered behavior.

Has research in neuroscience also shown that a sense of community is important?

This view aligns with many neurobiological perspectives on happiness, as stated in the textbook "A Counselor's Introduction to Neuroscience" (McHenry et al., 2014), and several studies suggest that expressing compassion and kindness may enhance relationships and mental and physical health (Fredrickson et al., 2013; Poulin & Holman, 2013).

Oxytocin is a hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted from the posterior pituitary gland. It is also known as the "love hormone" and is released when we feel social connection or when we care for someone.

Oxytocin is thought to be the source of feelings of happiness that come from having a sense of community, but it has also been found that the secretion of oxytocin does more than that; it also repairs physiological damage induced by stress.

A study by Poulin & Holman (2013) found that people who engaged in prosocial behavior had higher levels of endogenous oxytocin and fewer negative symptoms of stress. The authors suggest that prosocial behavior may be a way for people to stimulate the release of oxytocin and mitigate the negative effects of stress, demonstrating that oxytocin mitigates the adverse health effects of stress.

Another study by Fredrickson et al. (2013) reported that individuals who reported having a higher purpose, being connected to their community, and serving others had lower levels of inflammatory markers, while those who reported more hedonic experiences had elevated levels of pro-inflammatory genes and decreased levels of antiviral response.

Aristotle distinguished between "hedonia," which is happiness that pursues short-term pleasures such as enjoyment, satisfaction, and positive emotions, and "eudaimonia," which is happiness that comes from finding meaning and purpose in life and achieving long-term rather than short-term fulfillment. Here, however, it is interpreted that those who found eudaimonia in a social context were healthier.

These findings suggest, from a physiological and neurological perspective, that having a strong sense of community and contributing to the happiness of others has significant benefits for one's own mental stability and physical health.

Adler also referred to Darwin's theory of evolution, arguing that while other animals evolved physical strength, humans adapted to their environment by forming social groups, and that this is connected to the importance of having a sense of community (Adler & Iwai, 2024).

This idea is also proposed in the form of the social brain hypothesis from the perspective of current evolutionary biology, and can be said to be largely correct (Pedersen et al., 2014; Dunbar, 2024).

Is there any scientific basis for "Adlerian interpersonal relationships"?

Adlerian interpersonal relationships emphasize the separation of tasks (clearly defining one's own responsibilities and those of others, focusing on one's own tasks, and refraining from interfering with others' tasks until requested), rejecting "vertical relationships" (hierarchical relationships) and emphasizing "horizontal relationships" (equal relationships). Encouragement (giving people facing difficulties the energy to overcome them and the confidence that they can do it) is also recommended.

This is somewhat similar to "assertiveness" (self-assertion that respects oneself and others), which originated in behavioral therapy in modern times.

Assertiveness is a communication method and attitude that respects oneself and others, and expresses one's opinions, requests, and feelings frankly, honestly, and on an equal footing. It is consistent with Adlerian interpersonal relationships in that it recommends direct language (a rejection of the "culture of unspoken understanding") and emphasizes equality.

While Adlerian interpersonal relationships themselves lack sufficient scientific validation, several studies have shown that assertiveness can reduce anxiety, stress, and depression (Cantero-Sánchez, 2021; ElBarazi et al., 2024).

Similar ideas are prominent in early Buddhism, Stoic philosophy, and early Christianity, emphasizing the importance of protecting oneself while also showing compassion and respect for others within the community (Bazzano, 2005; Goerger, 2017; Case, 2024).

Is there scientific evidence for the "uniqueness of early childhood experiences"?

Adlerian psychology considers early childhood experiences to be extremely important for the overall development of an individual's view of themselves, others, and the world (Adler, 1956).

Adler (1956) argued that while individuals are born with certain tendencies, the manifestation of specific traits and talents is caused by the community (the surrounding environment).

In other words, this can be rephrased as the idea that "childhood experiences are qualitatively more important than adult experiences and are deeply involved in establishing one's 'lifestyle'."

In Adlerian psychology, "lifestyle" refers to an individual's unique "unconscious blueprint" for living their life, which is a fusion of childhood experiences and the need for belonging. It consists of three elements: self-concept (I am...), worldview (the world is...), and self-ideal (I want to be...).

Therefore, counselors in the Adlerian psychology school try to understand a person's inner world by deeply examining their family structure, including cultural and familial values, expectations of gender roles, the nature of relationships within their birth family, and their psychological birth order.

What about from a neuroscience perspective?

Current brain development models suggest that early childhood experiences have a significant impact on an individual's awareness of themselves, others, and the world, and are thought to complement Adler's view on early childhood experiences (Andersen et al., 2008; McHenry et al., 2014; Perry, 2009; Siegel, 2012).

Brain development begins in the brainstem in the womb and progresses to the prefrontal cortex in early adulthood. Neurologists believe that the fundamental structures related to the brain's regulatory circuits, a key element in discussions of mental health, are primarily formed during the first five years of life (Andersen et al., 2008; Perry, 2009).

In this process, children often internalize the neural circuits of their closest caregivers during their early childhood. While individuals are born with certain genetic predispositions, environmental experiences significantly influence which genetic predispositions are expressed or suppressed through a process called "epigenetics" (Garrett, 2011; Siegel, 2012).

Epigenetics is a mechanism that controls gene function (expression) without changing the DNA base sequence itself. Beginners in biology or those who still hold onto outdated biological ideas tend to think that "behavior is rigidly determined by genes, although there are environmental constraints." However, current biology has proven that, through the action of epigenetics, "individuals have the potential to be either way, and specific genes can be expressed depending on the environment, leading to certain behaviors."

In other words, not only are directly inherited genes involved, but also the environment during childhood, which can influence genetic expression and have both positive and negative effects later in life.

For example, Fallon (2013) examined individuals who engaged in violent psychopathological behavior using brain scans. They found that the participants shared similar neural activity profiles and patterns, specifically "decreased brain function in certain parts of the frontal and temporal lobes, areas generally associated with self-control and empathy."

Up to this point, it could be said that the person has lost their sense of community due to a brain abnormality. In a sense, this is normal.

However, further investigation suggests that some individuals, due to poor upbringing environments, may exhibit neurological activity profiles similar to those of individuals with psychopathic tendencies, even without showing high levels of aggression or low levels of empathy.

In other words, as Adler hypothesized, this suggests the possibility that early childhood experiences influence genetic predispositions.

This is very close to the reality when you consider cases where children born in slums commit crimes or join gangs without realizing it, influenced by their parents and those around them, or cases where children of toxic parents become toxic parents themselves.

Furthermore, Adler's ideas closely align with another psychological concept, "attachment theory," to the point that it's almost a rephrasing of it.

Attachment theory, proposed by psychologist John Bowlby in his research from the 1960s to the 1970s, is a theory that states that the emotional bonds (attachment) that people form with others have a significant impact on their mental health and interpersonal relationships.

Attachment theory was groundbreaking in that it demonstrated that the mother-child relationship, as explained by Freud, is not established through the child learning that "she is the one who breastfed me (satisfaction of need)," but rather through an instinctive and innate mechanism by which the child seeks out their parent, similar to other monkeys.

However, this theory was completed not by directly referencing Adler's earlier work, but by drawing on clinical observations, comparative studies, and references to animal behavior.

Although this attachment theory is old, it is still widely accepted today, and many neuroscientists have shown that attachment is internalized as tacit memory, and that secure attachment is associated with neural structures that promote emotion regulation, fear regulation, harmony, insight, self-understanding, empathy, and morality (Schore & Schore, 2008; Siegel, 2012), while insecure attachment is associated with decreased emotional and social intelligence, executive function, and stress regulation (Perry, 2009).

As described above, Adler's ideas, which emphasized childhood experiences, are still supported today, albeit with some changes in terminology.

Are "teleology" and "the lies of life" correct?

Teleology, in contrast to causalism which states that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, trauma, or physiological factors)," is the idea that "people choose their actions and emotions in the present in order to achieve some purpose, and the past causes cited are merely conveniently brought into play to suit that purpose."

This is a point that is often misunderstood because it is only written to this extent in textbooks, but even so, Adler did not deny that genes and the past are the cause of the current situation (Adler and Iwai, 2024).

However, I'm saying that the choice of the cause is ultimately up to the individual.

We often hear people say, "I can't get married because I don't have money and I'm not good-looking," but considering the counterexample of many people around the world who are married despite not having money or good looks, it's clear that even if there is a tendency for this to be the sole cause, it's wrong to attribute it to that. Nevertheless, this kind of expression is often seen.

While abuse can be a cause of delinquency, some people who experience it go on to achieve great success without resorting to crime.

Adler argues that we can choose whether to move in a constructive or unconstructive direction. Adler called the act of not taking action by making plausible excuses a "life lie."

I believe the validity of teleology and the concept of lies in life, that is, the error of causal theory itself, can be easily proven by simply providing exceptions.

So why does the brain make excuses and tell "lies about life" when it should actually be taking action?

In modern terms, this can be seen as "self-deception" (a psychological process in which one deceives oneself to justify or ignore one's own conscience or the truth, even though one knows it) in order to resolve "cognitive dissonance" (psychological discomfort arising from the simultaneous existence of contradictory thoughts or actions in one's mind) in response to "procrastination" behavior caused by "anxiety."

While humans can certainly achieve happiness and survival by maintaining the status quo and avoiding harm or potential threats, maintaining the status quo can also lead to negative consequences (Yamamori et al., 2023).

For example, when going through a job interview, you need to weigh the benefit of getting a new job against the risk of failing or experiencing embarrassment during the interview. While turning down one interview may have little impact on your life, habitually avoiding all job interviews will clearly lead to problems in the long run.

Consistently avoiding long-term benefits for the sake of short-term risks is called "procrastination" in psychology and "present bias" in behavioral economics. As the total of the lost rewards that could have been obtained through diligent effort accumulates, it has an increasingly negative impact, ultimately leading to missing out on important things in life.

Evolutionary biology and behavioral economics have pointed out that this is because humans tend to underestimate future benefits of survival, which are uncertain in the course of evolution (time discounting), and overestimate the risks they may face in the present (Rogers, 1994; Tomono, 2006).

Furthermore, neuroscientifically speaking, mouse experiments have shown that this anxiety process involves excessive strengthening of the connections between the hippocampus/amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (excessive theta wave synchronization), leading to overactivity of interneurons such as VIP ⁺ neurons, PV ⁺ neurons, and SST ⁺ neurons (Mack et al, 2023).

In other words, evolutionarily, the control system of the prefrontal cortex is overly active, making one more susceptible to anxiety. This leads to overestimating current failures and risks (punishments) over future rewards (things one wants to do), causing procrastination. However, because one also understands the downsides, cognitive dissonance occurs, and to resolve this, one resorts to self-deception by telling "lies about life."

In ancient times, when uncertainty was high and death was imminent, this could be considered a highly adaptive evolutionary trait, as it encouraged cautious behavior and promoted the maintenance of the status quo. However, in modern times, where technology has advanced and the risks of action have decreased, it can no longer be considered adaptive (Rogers, 1994; Rasmussen & Dover, 2006; Villmoare et al., 2024).

Early Buddhism and Stoic philosophy also warn against overestimating risks due to "delusions" and "attachments" (Ding et al., 2023). The same is true for early Christianity.

Is there a right way to have courage?

Adler states that "courage" is necessary to overcome "life's lies."

In Adlerian psychology, "courage" refers to the very "vitality" and "motivation" to overcome difficulties and challenges and to take positive action when faced with them.

Adler didn't actually list methods for summoning courage, but based on his intent, the following methods can be considered:

1. Start with small actions
2. Reducing unnecessary anxiety by separating issues
3. Using feelings of inferiority as motivation for growth
4. Be mindful of contributing to others
5. Strengthening self-determination

Of these, the idea of "starting with small actions" is now called "Small Wins" and was rediscovered by Weick (1984).

Small wins are small, achievable successes accumulated day by day towards achieving a larger goal. Weick argues that by breaking down large, complex problems into "small, attainable parts" and accumulating small wins, momentum and support can be gained, making change more likely.

For example, if you're studying, it could be something like memorizing vocabulary for just 10 minutes a day.

This leads to a sense of self-efficacy through achievement, creating a positive cycle of hope, belief, optimism, and confidence, as well as providing feedback for better strategies through learning through practice (Termeer & Dewulf, 2019).

The importance of "just trying something, even if it's small, rather than thinking about a big plan" is still strongly supported today. Agile development, a software development methodology, is one example of this.

On the other hand, there is insufficient research to determine whether separating issues truly leads to anxiety reduction, but it intuitively seems correct.

The idea of separating tasks is almost identical to the concept expressed in Stoic philosophy (Delaney, 2023).

Are there any flaws in Adlerian psychology?

I think there are two main differences between Adlerian psychology and modern thinking.

Is it true that there is no conflict?

First, let's consider the concept of conflict. Adlerian psychology does not recognize conflict between consciousness and the unconscious. This is called holism.

This rejects the idea of "fighting against one's inner self," instead positing that internal conflict exists to achieve one's goals.

This interpretation is not very common in modern times; for example, in evolutionary psychology, the mind is often explained not as a unified entity but as being composed of separate parts (modules) divided according to their purpose. This is also recently referred to as domain specificity (Oda & Otsubo, 2023).

Another example is the "elephant and mahout" metaphor, proposed by Jonathan Haidt, a social psychologist famous for positive psychology (Haidt, 2006). The "elephant and mahout" metaphor is also used in the early Buddhist scripture , the Dhammapada.

"Elephant" refers to the part of the mind that is separate from consciousness and is involved in reactions to stimuli and the formation of motivations through pleasure and displeasure, while "elephant handler" refers to the part that deals with consciousness, language, and rational long-term judgment.

The idea is that the elephant's behavior is a result of the evolutionarily more primitive development of the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, midbrain, and diencephalon, and that these are the main players, while the elephant handler, represented by the cerebral cortex, plays a supporting role, only able to slightly control the direction. In reality, conflicts between different parts of the cerebral cortex are also possible.

However, this is a matter of interpretation. There is no doubt that the elephant and the mahout work together towards some direction (purpose), and I believe that taking a holistic view of life is beneficial in that it prevents unconstructive thinking such as "I suffered again today because of the elephant," and even if the mahout's role is small, it allows us to positively receive messages from different parts of the brain.

Does free will exist?

Next, Adlerian psychology is based on the premise that free will exists. Therefore, it believes that individuals can choose better, more constructive actions for themselves.

On the other hand, in modern times, the prevailing view is the absence of free will (determinism), which holds that all human psychology and behavior are determined by a combination of environmental and genetic factors.

While it might be possible to have a deep philosophical discussion about this, it seems that Adler wasn't interested in such philosophical debates, but rather in assuming the existence of free will and encouraging efforts to change the future.

In psychology, several studies have shown that experimentally giving participants anti-free will messages leads to increased cheating, increased aggression, decreased willingness to help, decreased readiness for exercise, and decreased self-control. While recent meta-analyses have suggested that this has a low impact (Genschow et al., 2023), it may be possible in limited situations.

Fundamentally, accurate prediction of the future is impossible because its initial conditions are unknown, and since it is undetermined, the fact that the future can be changed through learning remains unchanged even if free will does not exist.

Finally, it's important to note that Adler's arguments are about 100 years old, and therefore lack a comprehensive model of early childhood development, meaning they cannot fully explain all aspects of life by modern standards (Miller & Dillman, 2016).

References

Alfred Adler, translated by Toshinori Iwai. 2024. Adler's Words in a Superb Translation: Essential Edition. Discover Twenty-One, Tokyo. 229pp. ISBN: 9784799330104

Bazzano, M. 2005. To feel with the heart of another: Notes on Adler and Zen Buddhism. In P. Prina, A. Miller, C. Shelley, & K. John (Eds.), UK Adlerian Year Book 2005 (pp.42-54). The Adlerian Society UK Institute for Individual Psychology. https://manubazzano.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/adler-and-buddhism.pdf

Cantero-Sánchez, FJ, León-Rubio, JM, Vázquez-Morejón, R., & León-Pérez, JM 2021. Evaluation of an assertiveness training based on the social learning theory for occupational health, safety and environment occupational. Sustainability 13(20): 11504. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011504

Case, B. 2024. Love's Limits in Paul of Tarsus and Seneca the Younger. Religions 15(10): 1169. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101169

Delaney, B. 2023. Reasons not to worry: how to be Stoic in chaotic times. Harper, 304pp. ISBN: 9780063314825 [=2024. Philosophy for living peacefully: A way of thinking for living in stressful times, learned from Stoicism. Discover Twenty-One, Tokyo. 421pp. ISBN: 9784799330784]

Ding, X., Ma, Y., Yu, F., & Abadal, LM 2023. The therapy of desire in times of crisis: lessons learned from Buddhism and Stoicism. Religions 14(2): 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020237

Dunbar, RI 2024. The social brain hypothesis–thirty years on. Annals of Human Biology 51(1): 2359920. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2024.2359920

ElBarazi, AS, Mohamed, F., Mabrok, M., Adel, A., Abouelkheir, A., Ayman, R., … & Mohamed, F. 2024. Efficiency of assertiveness training on the stress, anxiety, and depression levels of college students (Randomized control trial). Journal of Education and Health Promotion 13(1): 203. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_264_23

Genschow, O., Cracco, E., Schneider, J., Protzko, J., Wisniewski, D., Brass, M., & Schooler, JW 2023. Manipulating belief in free will and its downstream consequences: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 27(1): 52-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683221087527

Goerger, M. 2017. Moral Practice in Late Stoicism and Buddhist Meditation. Comparative Philosophy 8(1): 7. https://doi.org/10.31979/2151-6014(2017).080107

Haidt, J. 2006. The happiness hypothesis: finding modern truth in ancient wisdom. Basic books, New York. 320pp. ISBN: 9780465028023 [=2011. The happiness hypothesis: ancient wisdom and modern scientific wisdom. Shin'yosha, Tokyo. 355pp. ISBN: 9784788512320]

Lavon, I., & Shifron, R. 2020. The use of early recollections in Adlerian psychotherapy: Evidence in neuroscience research. Psychology and Behavioral Science International Journal 15(2): 55590. http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/PBSIJ.2019.10.555908

Mack, NR, Deng, S., Yang, SS, Shu, Y., & Gao, WJ 2023. Prefrontal cortical control of anxiety: Recent advances. The Neuroscientist 29(4): 488-505. https://doi.org/10.1177/10738584211069071

Miller, R., & Dillman Taylor, D. 2016. Does Adlerian theory stand the test of time?: Examining individual psychology from a neuroscience perspective. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling 55(2): 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12028, https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=cifs_facpubs

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When you take up listening to music, singing, or dancing as hobbies, you naturally become interested in rhythm and time signatures.

However, if we consider its origins, there are many aspects that we cannot answer. We often find ourselves moving to rhythms so naturally that we don't even question it, but this ability is actually very limited among living organisms, and it's fair to say that the ability to predict rhythm is unique to humans.

While there's no definitive answer as to the root cause of why that rhythm feels pleasant, one theory suggests that "walking" is deeply involved, and that it's also the origin of 2/4 and 4/4 time signatures. However, the concept of time signatures based on proper music theory itself only emerged in late medieval Europe with the birth of Baroque music.

The triple meter is considered unique and became widely used in 16th-century Austrian waltzes, supposedly because it matched movements that involved rotation.

This article will explain the origins of rhythm and time signatures (2/4, 4/4, and 3/4) from an evolutionary biological and historical perspective.

What is the origin of our sense of rhythm? Humans aren't the only ones who keep the beat!?

Rhythm is defined as "a phenomenon that repeats in a certain pattern that living beings can perceive."

The act of keeping rhythm is a phenomenon that is widely observed in organisms ranging from insects to monkeys, and there are examples such as the following (Iversen, 2016).

It's still unclear whether this sense of rhythm, from insects to humans, is due to genes that were common to all of them in evolutionary biology, but it seems that a certain degree of rhythmic sense is inherited.

What is the origin of the innate human sense of rhythm and the 2/4 time signature? Was the birth of walking the most important factor?

However, humans (and some birds) are thought to have developed a special sense of rhythm called "Rich BPS (Rich Beat Perception and Synchronization)" (Iversen, 2016).

Rich BPS consists of the following elements:

In short, it could be described as the ability to actively and predictively understand rhythm. It is currently believed that animals other than humans either lack this ability or possess it to a very limited extent.

So, what is considered to be the origin of Rich BPS and the 2/4 time signature?

Although there are various theories, walking is considered a very important factor (Iversen, 2016; Fitch, 2016).

For bipedal animals, the most energy-efficient form of walking is thought to be isochronic walking (walking with a constant period). Therefore, they move their left and right legs in a rhythmic manner.

It is believed that all humans, to varying degrees, instinctively acquire a sense of rhythm in order to grasp this sense of tempo.

There is a theory that the feeling of "pleasant rhythm" is an evolutionary by-product of "the motivation for infants to start walking."

Even adults sometimes feel a sense of comfort while taking a walk, which can be rephrased as finding the periodic vestibular and auditory inputs pleasant.

This theory suggests that the enjoyment of walking, stemming from periodic vestibular and auditory input, led to a preference for singing and dancing, which involve movements that stimulate the auditory and vestibular senses.

From another perspective, when bipedal animals walk in groups, if they can synchronize their walking rhythms, they may be able to quickly detect enemy groups, predators, or prey whose footsteps are not in sync. Furthermore, the size of the group can be concealed by layering sounds. This can also be considered a significant advantage of the evolution of Rich BPS.

In music theory, 2/4 time is monotonous because it consists only of strong and weak beats, and nowadays it is only used in marches, popular songs, and a few other genres, having largely given way to 4/4 time.

What is the origin of the 4/4 time signature?

4/4 time is a time signature with four beats per measure. It is similar to 2/4 time, but is generally distinguished by the fact that the strength of the beats progresses from strong to weak to medium-strong to weak. However, since the strength of the beats is not the sole definition of 4/4 time, it seems that the distinction is largely based on convention.

4/4 time, where a quarter note constitutes one beat, is the most widely used time signature in modern music and is used extensively in all genres, including rock, pop, dance music, classical, and jazz.

So, what do you think is the original origin of 4/4 time?

This is indeed considered to be walking (Fitch, 2016). However, the interpretation of walking changes slightly in this case.

When you're walking, you think of it as "sound of kicking with the right foot → sound of lifting the right foot → sound of kicking with the left foot → sound of lifting the left foot."

If we think about it this way, we get a time signature that follows the pattern of "strong beat → weak beat → strong beat → weak beat".

However, to the best of the author's knowledge, there are no papers that offer a clear explanation for the emergence of "mid-strong beats." While it's intuitively clear that the presence of "mid-strong beats" adds complexity and makes the music more enjoyable, it may remain a scientific mystery.

The "4/4 time signature" of "strong beat → weak beat → medium-strong beat → weak beat," based on modern music theory, is believed to have originated in the dance music of the early 17th century Baroque period, but its formation process is not well understood.

Even now, with the advent of DTM (Desktop Music) and the ability to reproduce any kind of music, the fact that even time signatures, along with the aforementioned 2/4 time signature, are still among the most widely used in pop music suggests that we instinctively prefer even time signatures, which resemble walking rhythms.

However, this approach alone cannot explain complex music that is not mainstream, such as music with irregular time signatures, groove, laid-back, push, offbeat, syncopation, and swing. While not mainstream, this music cannot be ignored and has achieved commercial success. While there's a strong sense that "being offbeat is more fun and comfortable," its biological origins remain a great mystery.

However, I also feel that these techniques are valuable when used in a partial manner.

What is the origin of the triple meter?

Triple time is a time signature with three beats per measure, consisting of a strong beat, a weak beat, and another weak beat. It is a time signature commonly used in Western dance music such as waltzes and minuets.

Typical time signatures include 3/4 time, where one beat is a quarter note, and 3/8 time, where two beats are eighth notes.

How did the triple meter come about?

While it may have originated even earlier, in Europe, mensural notation, which emerged in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, made it possible to accurately write the length of notes. It was then that, theoretically, triple time became possible.

In fact, the widespread use of triple time is believed to have originated in the waltz, at least in Europe (Fitch, 2016). There are various theories, but it is thought to have become popular in Europe around 1580 and developed from German and Austrian folk dances (Buurman, 2021). As a side note, the Japanese Wikipedia states that it was established in the 13th century, but there is no source for this, and there is no such statement in the English version.

In the Viennese waltz, a series of steps (step → turn → bring feet together) are interspersed between turns, with each "bringing feet together" action serving as a short break to prepare for the next step with the opposite foot. This creates a cycle of six steps, with both the right and left feet taking steps.

The unique aspect of this movement is that it involves rotation, and it is believed that a 3/4 time signature naturally becomes optimal when this action is involved.

Triple time can be considered a relatively new time signature, having emerged after the development of more relaxed dances.

What are some other theories about the evolution of rhythm?

There are several other theories regarding the evolution of rhythm, which I will introduce for reference (Iversen, 2016; Seki & Tachibana, 2023).

The Vocal Learning Hypothesis posits that a sense of rhythm evolved as a byproduct of the ability to imitate voices. This is supported by the fact that parrots and humans possess both the ability to imitate voices and a rich BPS (Beatman-Fetal Positioning System). However, this contradicts the fact that non-vocal mimicry animals (such as sea lions) also possess a sense of rhythm. This might simply be a pre-adaptation for acquiring neural circuits that convert auditory input into motor output.

The theory of sexual selection, proposed by the renowned evolutionary psychologist George Miller, suggests that musical ability was advantageous in mate selection. However, the fact that both sexes possess musical ability contradicts the typical theory of sexual selection. Nevertheless, since there are differences in musical preferences between men and women, it is possible that sexual selection occurred incidentally after the evolution of rhythmic sense.

The social bonding and group cooperation theory posits that rhythm evolved to promote group bonding and cooperative behavior. This seems natural when we consider the sense of unity we feel and the mosh pit we form at live concerts today. However, natural selection usually occurs among individuals or closely related groups, and this type of evolution falls under the category of "multilevel group selection," which is different from the usual pattern. This idea is not very popular in evolutionary biology because there is debate about its interpretation (although I think there is some truth to it). Moreover, it seems that rhythm is not the only thing that could promote bonding, so perhaps the sense of unity is a consequence of the evolution of rhythm.

The maladaptation theory (music being a byproduct) was proposed by the famous psychologist Steven Pinker, who argued that music is an "auditory cheesecake," a pleasure-seeking technique, and not an evolutionary adaptation. While it's true that modern, pleasant music might be like a cheesecake, the very sense of rhythm itself seems to be an evolutionary product.

Currently, the prevailing view seems to me that the fundamental sense of rhythm evolved in conjunction with walking, but this may change depending on future research.

References

Buurman, E. 2021. Early Viennese Waltz Dances. In: E. Buurman (Ed.), The Viennese Ballroom in the Age of Beethoven (pp. 32-54). Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781108797856, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108863278.003

Fitch, WT 2016. Dance, music, meter and groove: a forgotten partnership. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10: 64. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00064

Iversen, JR 2016. 21 In the beginning was the beat: evolutionary origins of musical rhythm in humans. In: R. Hartenberger (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Percussion (pp. 281-295). Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781107472433, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316145074.022

Seki, Yoshimasa & Tachibana, Ryosuke. 2023. Animal rhythm synchronization ability and its origins. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Japan 80(1): 33-40. https://doi.org/10.20697/jasj.80.1_33