In Japan, except in some regions, eating insects is extremely rare, and it can be said that it is almost unheard of among the younger generation, especially in urban areas.

While some advocate for eating insects to prepare for food shortages, cries of "Absolutely not!" are heard, mainly on social media. Even though I work with insects, I also feel a sense of pity for them and have reservations about eating them.

That being said, the truth is that, unintentionally, Japanese people eat insects (or components extracted from them) every day. Representative examples include cochineal, which contains carminic acid produced by the cochineal insect, and shellac, which is made by heat treatment or solvent extraction of lac, produced by the lac insect.

To put it simply, cochineal is used as a pure dye in food and cosmetics, lac is used as a dye in food, and shellac is used as a wax in many applications such as adhesives, food polishing agents, wood finishes, and SP records.

Cochineal is generally safe, but it's important to be aware that in rare cases, people who regularly use cosmetics containing cochineal may experience allergic reactions.

The reason cochineal continues to be used despite containing insects is likely because safe and inexpensive artificial colorings have yet to be found.

This article will explain cochineal insects and lac insects, as well as the components they produce.

What is the difference between cochineal insects and lac insects?

First, let's clarify the differences between cochineal insects and lac insects, which are often confused.

The cochineal insect (also known as the cochineal insect), Dactylopius coccus, belongs to the family Dactylopiidae within the superfamily Coccoidea and is distributed from the southwestern United States through Mexico to the temperate regions of South America (Schowalter, 2025). It is now sometimes cultivated in China. It uses prickly pear cacti (Cactaceae) as its host, inserting its stylets into the phloem tubes (tubes that transport sugars produced by photosynthesis throughout the plant) and feeding on the phloem sap.

On the other hand, the lac insect Kerria lacca (Laccifer lacca is a synonym) is classified in the family Kerriidae within the superfamily Coccoidea and is distributed in China, South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar) (Watanabe, 2003; Takekawa, 2010; Bashir et al., 2022). Its hosts are extremely diverse, with over 400 plant species reported worldwide, but commercially, three species are used: Butea monosperma (Fabaceae), Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae), and Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). Like the lac insect, it lives by inserting its stylets into the phloem tubes and feeding on the phloem sap.

Although they both cling to plants in a similar way, cochineal insects are originally from the Americas, while lac insects are found in Eurasia. You can see that the plants they utilize and their habitats are completely different.

The components produced are also different.

Cochineal insects produce carminic acid, which is both a defensive substance and a pigment, while lac insects produce a waxy substance called lac, which contains laccaic acid as a pigment.

Why did the cochineal insect evolve to produce carminic acid?

It is believed that carminic acid was originally secreted by the cochineal insect to protect itself from carnivorous insects such as ants, ladybugs, and lacewings, as well as microorganisms (Schowalter, 2025). The defense provided by carminic acid is strong, and very few species prey on it.

However, some insects are known to still prey on cochineal insects. The larvae of the carnivorous moth Laetilia coccidivora, a member of the Pyralidae family, are known to prey on cochineal insects by spitting out a sac containing carminic acid. However, even in this case, their survival rate, development rate, and reproduction rate are significantly worse than when they feed on cochineal insects that do not contain carminic acid.

While carminic acid is merely a pigment for humans, it is actually an important component for cochineal insects.

The fact that cochineal insects themselves can turn red is thought to be due to carminic acid, and it is possible that this is an "honest signal" warning color, intended to convey "the redder, the more poisonous!" by possessing both pigment and defense properties, but this has not been thoroughly investigated. Examples of warning colors that serve as honest signals by combining pigment and antioxidant properties are well known (Blount et al., 2009).

What are the differences in the uses of cochineal lac and shellac?

Cochineal insects are killed with boiling water and dried to produce "black cochineal," and crushing black cochineal yields "cochineal," which contains carminic acid. For dyeing purposes, carminic acid is further chemically reacted to synthesize "carmine" (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Schowalter, 2025).

On the other hand, the lac produced by the lac insect initially clumps together on the branches of the host plant, but the lac removed from the branch is called "stick lac" (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). This stick lac can be washed and dried to produce what is called "seed lac," and further heat treatment or solvent extraction can produce "shellac," a pure wax that does not contain insect remains and has reduced or eliminated laccaic acid.

It's important to note that rack and shellac are different things.

How do these ultimately produced ingredients differ in their uses?

To put it simply, cochineal is used as a pure dye in food and cosmetics, lac is used as a dye in food, and shellac is used as a wax in many applications such as adhesives, food polishing agents, wood finishes, and SP records.

Because cochineal produces a vibrant red color, it was originally used for dyeing cloth, and there are records of its use in Central and South America from at least 600 AD (Schowalter, 2025). When Columbus visited the Americas during the Age of Discovery, it was highly valued by European nobility because of its superior strength and durability compared to older dyes, and it eventually became inexpensive and spread throughout the world. It was also introduced to Japan through trade with the West during the Momoyama and Edo periods, and was used by Sengoku warlords (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). However, with the advent of aniline dyes, its use for dyeing cloth declined, and other uses were developed.

In Japan today, cochineal is used as a food coloring agent in soft drinks, strawberry milk, alcohol, shaved ice syrup, confectionery, ham, sausages, and fish cakes, as well as in cosmetics such as lipstick, lip balm, blush, eyeshadow, and nail polish, and in art supplies. Note that in Japan, the cochineal used in food products is carminic acid, while in cosmetics it is carmine (Inomata, 2025).

Lac still contains a lot of laccaic acid, so it is used as a fabric dye and is known as lac dyeing (purple mineral dyeing) (Takekawa, 2010). Around 2000 BC, it was used in China and India as a dye and as a medicine called myrrh (traditional Chinese medicine). It had already been introduced to Japan during the Nara period and has been found in the Shōsōin Treasury (Toko and Komashiro, 2007). However, its use declined with the advent of aniline dyes and Western medicine.

In modern Japan, lac is added to food products and used to color sweets, bean paste, bacon, sausages, noodles, processed seafood, and jams.

Shellac was originally used as a finishing material because of its excellent properties for protecting and polishing wood. However, in the early 20th century, the developing electrical industry recognized its excellent properties as an electrical insulator, leading to increased demand. However, in 1907, when American Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite as a substitute, its use in that application declined (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003).

However, shellac's other uses have expanded in many directions, and in Japan today it is used in countless ways, including paints, adhesives, varnishes for stringed instruments and wooden furniture, granular chocolates and gums that don't stain hands, pharmaceutical tablets, a coating agent for roasted chestnuts, and SP records (Takekawa, 2010).

These insects have truly been supporting society from ancient times to the present day, constantly changing their form along the way.

Do Japanese people really eat cochineal insects? From the cultivation of cochineal insects to their eventual appearance on the dinner table as a food coloring agent.

Some people might wonder, "Do Japanese people actually eat cochineal insects?"

In other words, regardless of whether cochineal is used, the point is that it's merely an extracted chemical component, and not the cochineal insect itself. (Some people might find that off-putting, though...)

Unfortunately (?), we can proudly say that the Japanese eat scale insects (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Schowalter, 2025).

Cochineal insects harvested from prickly pear cacti are killed by soaking them in hot water or exposing them to sunlight or heat, and then dried for preservation until they reach approximately 301 TP3T of their raw weight. This is "black cochineal."

The powder produced by crushing black cochineal is called "cochineal." Approximately 70,000 insects are needed to produce one pound (0.45 kilograms) of cochineal dye (Miller, 2022).

When cochineal is boiled in ammonia water or sodium carbonate solution and alum is added, a red aluminum carminate precipitate forms. This aluminum carminate is "carmine."

Furthermore, by adding other ingredients such as tin chloride, citric acid, borax, and lime, you can create a variety of colors ranging from pink to purple.

In other words, it's almost certain that whole insects are being crushed and then applied to or incorporated into food and cosmetics.

On the other hand, while lac insect lacs also contain insect bodies, shellac consists almost entirely of its chemical components.

Are cochineal scale insects disgusting?

Whether or not cochineal insects are considered disgusting is, of course, subjective, but there are several factors that contribute to that perception.

First, scale insects typically infest leaves in dense clusters and produce a cottony waxy substance. This is thought to protect against moisture loss, excessive sunlight exposure, and predators such as ants, but it is what makes the leaves look unsightly.

Furthermore, in order to excrete the excess sugar absorbed through the phloem (and also as a reward for ants guarding them), the plant "urinates" (diabetes), which gets on the leaves, creating a sticky, viscous substance, and weakening the plant itself, resulting in an even dirtier appearance.

But eccentric people like me think, "It's so small and cute!"

Furthermore, you could say that it's thanks to scale insects that you can put on makeup while enjoying red drinks and sweets like macarons, and then take and post sparkling, "Instagrammable" photos on social media like Instagram.

Therefore, rather than simply dismissing them as "disgusting," I think it's not a bad idea to show gratitude and respect to those who provide us with food. It's certainly not a pleasant experience for the cochineal insects themselves, who are the ones being eaten. (Although, there's also the perspective that they are being bred and thus the species is surviving as a result.)

While it may evoke a physiological aversion, insects and cosmetics are surprisingly closely related, as evidenced by the use of galls (five-grain galls, sumac ear galls) of the sumac aphid Schlechtendalia chinensis for teeth blackening in Japanese history (Ezure et al., 1987).

What are the dangers of cochineal? Does it cause allergies?

However, there is also the practical problem of cochineal insects: the existence of allergies (Akiyama & Sugimoto, 2014; Inomata, 2025).

There are multiple patterns of cochineal allergies.

The first type is occupational inhalation exposure, where workers who are routinely exposed to cochineal dye or carmine through inhalation, such as those engaged in extracting dye from cochineal insects or handling carmine in cosmetics factories, develop allergies.

The second type is those who exhibit skin symptoms caused by cosmetics containing cochineal.

The third type is caused by oral ingestion of foods containing cochineal.

The worst-case scenario is a combination of the second and third types, where applying cosmetics containing cochineal to the face causes the immune system to mistakenly perceive the cosmetic as a "foreign substance that attacks the human body!" and memorize its molecular structure (immunological memory). The next time food containing cochineal is consumed, the immune system overreacts and attacks the body itself. This is called "anaphylactic shock."

Many researchers believe that the cause of this reaction is not carmine from cochineal, but rather residual proteins derived from the body fluids of the cochineal insect that are involved in the manifestation of IgE-mediated allergic symptoms. However, there are also reports of reactions to carmine, so there are various theories.

It is believed that this system originally evolved to react to parasites (Palm et al, 2012). In other words, if a protein is the cause, then this can be rephrased as a reaction that occurs because our bodies mistakenly identify cosmetics containing cochineal insect fluid as "parasites!"

While this may sound quite frightening, despite its widespread use, only 22 cases have been reported in Japan since it began to be documented in academic papers in Japan until 2018, and there have been no deaths (Takeo et al., 2018).

However, it's possible that the lack of awareness is the reason why this condition is occurring more frequently than it actually is, so if you feel anything unusual, be sure to consult a doctor.

Why is cochineal still being used?

Why is cochineal, which is considered "disgusting" and potentially causes allergic reactions, still being used?

In fact, there was a period when artificial red coloring was used, but from around the 1970s, reports on the relationship between coloring and hyperactivity in children, as well as cell and animal studies suggesting that certain dyes may increase the risk of cancer, began to emerge, and health concerns about these synthetic dyes started to grow (Miller, 2022).

These concerns ultimately led to the banning of some dyes, such as Red No. 2 and Red No. 4. However, some of these harmful effects were later revoked.

As a result, naturally derived colorants such as carminic acid have begun to gain popularity.

Natural colorants have a very long history, which can be considered to guarantee their safety to some extent. Furthermore, because the manufacturing process is already established, it is possible to produce them at a lower cost, both in terms of time and money.

However, in addition to the reasons mentioned above, there is a growing number of vegans, vegetarians, and animal rights activists in the United States who do not want to accidentally consume insect-derived products.

Furthermore, using large quantities of prickly pear cacti does not necessarily result in good production efficiency.

Therefore, methods for artificial synthesis are being researched, but practical application is still some time away.

References

Akiyama, Hiroshi & Sugimoto, Naoki. 2014. Food allergies caused by cochineal dye and carmine intake. Pharmacia 50(6): 522-527. https://doi.org/10.14894/faruawpsj.50.6_522

Bashir, NH, Chen, H., Munir, S., Wang, W., Chen, H., Sima, YK, & An, J. 2022. Unraveling the role of lac insects in providing natural industrial products. Insects 13(12): 1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13121117

Blount, JD, Speed, MP, Ruxton, GD, & Stephens, PA 2009. Warning displays may function as honest signals of toxicity. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276(1658): 871-877. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1407

Ezure, T., Katsura, K., Ten, M., Taguchi, H., Ikeda, M., Matsuzaki, A., & Suzuki, T. 1987. Concept and Case Reports of Ohaguro (Teeth Blackening). Iwate Medical University Dental Journal 12(2): 217-221. https://doi.org/10.20663/iwateshigakukaishi.12.2_217

Inomata, Naoko. 2025. Cochineal dye allergy. Allergy 74(3): 174-176. https://doi.org/10.15036/arerugi.74.174

Le Couteur, PC, & Burreson, J. 2003. Napoleon's buttons: How 17 molecules changed history. Tarcher, 384pp. ISBN: 9781585422203 [=2011. Spices, explosives, pharmaceuticals—17 chemical substances that changed world history. Chuokoron-Shinsha, Tokyo. 368pp. ISBN: 9784120043079]

Miller, BJ 2022. Cochineal, a red dye from bugs, moves to the lab. Knowable Magazine. ISSN: 2575-4459, https://doi.org/10.1146/knowable-032522-1

Palm, NW, Rosenstein, RK, & Medzhitov, R. 2012. Allergic host defences. Nature 484(7395): 465-472. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11047

Schowalter, TD 2025. Ecology, use, and management of cochineal insects (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae). Journal of Integrated Pest Management 16(1): pmaf033. https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmaf033

Takekawa, Yukiko. 2010. The Use of Shellac, a Natural Resinous Substance: Focusing on Shōsōin Treasures and Medicinal Properties. Osaka Science Museum Research Report 20: 65-70. https://www.sci-museum.jp/wp-content/themes/scimuseum2021/pdf/study/research/2010/pb20_065-070.pdf

Takeo, N., Nakamura, M., Nakayama, S., Okamoto, O., Sugimoto, N., Sugiura, S., … & Matsunaga, K. 2018. Cochineal dye-induced immediate allergy: review of Japanese cases and proposed new diagnostic chart. Allergology International 67(4): 496-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2018.02.012

Toko, Yukiko & Komashiro, Motoko. 2007. Natural red dyes. Journal of Life Engineering Research 9(1): 136-139. http://hdl.handle.net/10083/3267

Watanabe, Hiroyuki. 2003. Scale insects save tropical forests. Tokai University Press, Hadano. 136pp. ISBN: 9784486016182

In Japan, the Japanese black bear (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) is found on Honshu and Shikoku, while the Hokkaido brown bear (Ursus arctos yesoensis) is found on Hokkaido.

It has been reported that by 2025 these bears were increasing their activity in populated areas, leading to a frequent occurrence of tragic incidents. Such bear attacks have existed since ancient times and are a problem not only in Japan but all over the world.

Among those people, many might wonder, "How are bears related to our lives?"

Some people hold the extreme opinion that "bears should be exterminated!" I think they are free to hold such opinions, but I believe they may lack sufficient knowledge about the benefits that bears provide to the ecosystem.

While I believe that culling bears is sometimes unavoidable when necessary, as someone involved in environmental assessment work, I will deliberately consider the practical benefits (advantages and advantages for humans) rather than focusing on animal welfare.

To put it simply, "Bears enrich forests through seed dispersal and predation, and indirectly benefit humans through the benefits those forests provide."

Reason 1: Because seed dispersal will decrease, leading to a reduction in forests or an increase in simple forests.

Although the Japanese black bear is an omnivore, it is known that 80-90% of its diet consists of plant-based foods (Hashimoto and Takatsuki, 1997).

Among these, it has been found that they eat the fruits of 23 different plants, and fecal analysis has revealed that they also expel the seeds of 16 different plants alive (Koike et al., 2003).

The plants include six varieties of cherry blossoms, such as the mountain cherry (Prunus jamasakura), and are familiar and well-known to Japanese people who love cherry blossom viewing.

In addition, there are studies showing that, beyond just the number of species, the distribution of mountain cherry trees, for example, is being pushed up to higher altitudes geographically by the Japanese black bear (Naoe et al., 2016).

The same is true for brown bears; it has been reported that bears, not birds, disperse the majority of seeds of the American berry shrub , Oplopanax horridus, in southeastern and northern Alaska, United States (Levi et al., 2020).

While there is still insufficient research on the Hokkaido brown bear, it is thought that berries play a similar role in their diet (Sato, 2005; 2018). In one study, after eating three types of berries, including Actinidia arguta, most of the seeds were excreted intact, with 941 TP3T remaining undamaged, and the germination rate was increased (Tsunamoto et al., 2024).

Furthermore, it has been confirmed that brown bears supply food to seed-eating rodents through their feces (Levi et al., 2020). Mice readily carry the seeds contained in the bear's droppings.

In other words, this means that bears are increasing the diversity of plants and animals in the forest.

It is well known that forests provide a variety of "ecosystem services," such as fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide and converting it into biomass, acting as a "green dam" to absorb rainwater and reduce the risk of floods and water shortages, stabilizing the ground to prevent landslides and mudslides, regulating the climate, and providing recreational areas (Nakashizu, 2017; Tanaka and Nagahiro, 2019).

Furthermore, numerous studies have shown that insects that thrive in forests contribute to the pollination of our agricultural products (Ulyshen et al., 2023), and many crops cannot bear fruit without pollination by wild insects. For example, in Japan, it has been found that buckwheat pollination is facilitated by insects originating from forests (Taki et al., 2010).

It is well known that these ecosystem services are more abundant in forests with higher biodiversity (Brockerhoff et al., 2017).

Therefore, it is highly likely that the existence of bears indirectly benefits humans as well.

However, it can be said that the extent to which this affects the overall situation is currently unknown.

Reason 2: Because it will get rid of the bees.

Japanese black bears also readily eat honeybees, wasps, and ants (Hashimoto and Takatsuki, 1997). These make up the largest proportion of their animal-based diet. This is because they are eusocial insects and exist in colonies, making them an important source of protein for Japanese black bears. The same is true for Hokkaido brown bears (Sato, 2005).

Honeybees and wasps, in particular, are relatively aggressive insects and possess venomous stingers, making them a common cause of harm to humans. In the decade from 2002 to 2011, wasp stings averaged 19.4 deaths per person (Kanayama, 2013). The number of injuries is likely much higher.

Japanese black bears may be reducing the populations of honeybees and wasps by preying on them. In particular, wasps are almost the top predator among insects and have only a handful of natural enemies (Noguchi & Ikeda, 2022), and even among vertebrates, the number of proven natural enemies is limited, such as the honey buzzard bird and the marten mammal (Hirakawa & Sayama, 2005).

The Japanese black bear is undoubtedly an important natural enemy of honeybees and wasps, and it likely also brings benefits to humans. However, the quantitative aspects remain unclear.

From the perspective of human benefits, it boils down to the question, "Which is more important, eliminating bears or wasps?", but I've encountered wasps far more often.

Furthermore, as top predators among insects, hornets prey on a wide variety of insects. Hornets, which have invaded Hawaii and New Zealand as an invasive species, are known to have a significant impact on native ecosystems, primarily affecting moth and butterfly larvae (New, 2016).

In Japan, the Japanese black bear may be reducing the population of wasps, thereby lowering predation pressure and increasing the diversity of prey and sub-predators. This would likely lead to the aforementioned increase in ecosystem services.

Reason 3: Salmon spread nutrients from the sea onto land through their predation.

While there are currently no confirmed instances of Japanese black bears eating fish (Hashimoto & Takatsuki, 1997), Hokkaido brown bears have been confirmed to eat salmonid fish such as pink salmon and chum salmon, although the amount has been decreasing due to development (Sato, 2005). The predation pressure is so strong that it alters the breeding morphology of pink salmon (Sahashi et al., 2020), and they serve as an important food source before hibernation. Some studies also suggest that females can produce more offspring as their consumption of salmon increases (Sato, 2018).

At first glance, this might sound like simple predation, but in fact, by consuming such large quantities of salmon, the Hokkaido brown bear is returning nutrients, primarily nitrogen, from the sea to the land (Koshino et al., 2013; Sato, 2018). This might be an overlooked point.

It has been pointed out that this is true not only for the Ezo brown bear in Japan but also for brown bears around the world (Levi et al.,, 2020).

Furthermore, it has been discovered that salmon not only enrich the forest through their feces, but also enrich the rivers themselves, as land animals and aquatic insects utilize the carcasses of the salmon they kill.

Normally, nutrients would be washed away by gravity, but the fact that this doesn't happen is thanks to salmon and brown bears.

However, you might wonder, "Isn't nitrogen already transported inland by seabird droppings, and isn't it okay because leguminous plants and other organisms fix nitrogen from the air back into the soil?"

However, studies investigating nitrogen isotope ratios have confirmed that riparian plants actively utilize nitrogen derived from salmon, increasing physiological activity, productivity, and community structure, and exhibiting specific changes such as an increase in the nitrogen ratio within the plant body and an increase in stomatal density (Levi et al., 2020).

Almost exclusively bears are capable of doing something similar, and even animals that eat salmon only consume the carcasses left behind after bears have hunted or after floods.

Therefore, the Hokkaido brown bear may play a significant role in enriching the rivers and riverside forests of Hokkaido.

Reason 4: Because digging enriches the land.

Brown bears are known to dig up the underground parts of herbaceous plants in subalpine grasslands such as snowfield communities (Sato, 2018). This is also true for the Ezo brown bear in Japan.

Although there is a lack of research in Japan, it has been reported that in Glacier National Park in Montana, USA, this "digging" behavior has led to an increase in bare ground, a rise in ammonia and nitrate concentrations in the soil, and an increase in seed production of the yellow dogtooth violet plant.

In other words, the feeding behavior of brown bears is indeed contributing to an increase in soil fertility. Organisms that modify the landscape through certain behaviors, creating habitats for other organisms, are called "ecosystem engineers." Earthworms and beavers are typical examples, but brown bears have been shown to be part of this group as well.

Reason 5: Because they eat herbivores and return them to the soil.

Japanese black bears are known to feed on Japanese serows and Japanese deer, while Hokkaido brown bears feed on Hokkaido deer (Hashimoto and Takatsuki, 1997; Sato, 2005).

However, instances of them directly eating living animals are rare, except for weakened individuals, and it is generally believed that they feed on carcasses killed through hunting or extermination (Hashimoto & Takatsuki, 1997; Sato, 2018).

While brown bears in other countries sometimes prey on young herbivores, and given the limited opportunities to directly observe Japanese black bears and Hokkaido brown bears, it's possible they are preying on more animals than we know, but this is currently unknown.

If they are preying on herbivorous mammals, they may be regulating their populations.

Even if they are scavengers, they still play a role in returning herbivorous mammals to the soil.

However, this role may be replaceable by many other animals.

Reason 6: They eat mushrooms and then spread their spores.

It has been found that the American black bear (Ursus americanu s) and the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), which are distributed in North America, eat fungi (mycorrhizal fungi, which include ascomycetes and basidiomycetes) and excrete some of the spores alive as they pass through their digestive tract (Cázares & Trappe, 1994; Mattson et al., 2002).

This may help distribute less mobile fungi over a wider area, contributing to increased fungal diversity and the diversity of host plants. Furthermore, free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria that inhabit the fruiting bodies of mycorrhizal fungi are also dispersed along with fungal spores through mammalian feeding.

Of course, people who enjoy mushroom hunting as a hobby are directly benefiting from it.

While this hasn't been extensively studied in Japan, it's known that Japanese black bears also eat mushrooms (Hashimoto & Takatsuki, 1997), suggesting a similar role. However, squirrels, flying squirrels, mice, and Japanese macaques also eat mushrooms (Sawada, 2014; Sagara, 2021).

In conclusion: Is the role of the bear replaceable?

Up to this point, we have listed the various benefits of bears across different ecosystems, but their actual impact on the ecosystem as a whole remains unknown due to a lack of research.

The Asiatic black bear in Kyushu had already had a limited habitat and a small population by the early Showa period, and was extinct after the last sighting in 1957 (Nishida et al., 2022). However, it is unknown whether this has led to the effects described above.

However, human imagination has its limits, and it would be nearly impossible to consider all the consequences of an irreversible extinction.

As known as the "rivet hypothesis," even if one part of an airplane is missing and it can still fly (even if one species disappears and the ecosystem appears unchanged), as the number of missing parts increases, it can rapidly become impossible to fly (the ecosystem collapses) (Eisenhauer et al., 2023). In recent years, this has been demonstrated under the term "redundancy."

Even bears, in the present, may have their role taken over by other animals, but if other species become extinct, it's uncertain whether that will actually happen.

As depicted in the manga "Golden Kamuy," there is a view that the Japanese should adopt a similar approach to dealing with bears, just as the Ainu once distinguished between "good" brown bears (Kimun Kamuy) that do not attack humans and "bad" brown bears (Wen Kamuy) that do, and treated them accordingly (Matsuda, 2008). Considering that extermination is irrational from a cost, interest, and ethical standpoint, I also believe that this serves as an example to consider the duality of nature and that rational coexistence is needed.

Of course, balancing extermination and protection is very difficult, so please consider the above-mentioned impacts and deepen your discussion.

References

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Cázares, E., & Trappe, JM 1994. Spore dispersal of ectomycorrhizal fungi on a glacier forefront by mammal mycophagy. Mycologia 86(4): 507-510. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1994.12026443

Eisenhauer, N., Hines, J., Maestre, FT, & Rillig, MC 2023. Reconsidering functional redundancy in biodiversity research. npj Biodiversity 2(1): 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44185-023-00015-5

Kanayama, Akihiro. 2013. Bee species and control methods. Pest Control Tokyo (64): 20-25. https://www.pestcontrol-tokyo.jp/img/pub/064r/064-8.pdf

Koike, S., Hazumi, T., & Furubayashi, K. 2003. Possible seed dispersal of the Japanese black bear (Ursus thibetanus japonicus). Wildlife Conservation 8(1): 19-30. https://doi.org/10.20798/wildlifeconsjp.8.1_19

Koshino, Y., Kudo, H., & Kaeriyama, M. 2013. Stable isotope evidence indicates the incorporation into Japanese catchments of marine-derived nutrients transported by spawning Pacific Salmon. Freshwater Biology 58(9): 1864-1877. https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.12175

Levi, T., Hilderbrand, GV, Hocking, MD, Quinn, TP, White, KS, Adams, MS, … & Wilmers, CC 2020. Community ecology and conservation of bear-salmon ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 8: 513304. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.513304

Mattson, DJ, Podruzny, SR, & Haroldson, MA 2002. Consumption of fungal sporocarps by Yellowstone grizzly bears. Ursus 13: 95-103. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3873191

Matsuda, Hiroyuki. 2008. Restarting Science Course 07: Why Protect Ecosystems?. NTT Publishing, Tokyo. 240pp. ISBN: 9784757160279

Nakashizu, Toru. 2017. Terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem services. Journal of the Japanese Society of Rural Planning 36(1): 5-8. https://doi.org/10.2750/arp.36.5

Hashimoto, Yukihiko & Takatsuki, Shigeki. 1997. Diet of the Asiatic black bear: A review. Mammalian Science 37(1): 1-19. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.37.1

Hirakawa, H., & Sayama, K. 2005. Photographic evidence of predation by martens (Martes melampus) on vespine wasp nests. Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute 4(3): 207-210. ISSN: 0916-4405, https://www.ffpri.go.jp/labs/kanko/396-3.pdf

Sahashi, Genki; Morita, Kentaro; and Yoshiyama, Taku. 2020. The same species, but quite different? – Intraspecies diversity observed in wild salmonid fish. Salmon Information 14: 3-9. ISSN: 1881-705X, https://fra.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/2009605

Naoe, S., Tayasu, I., Sakai, Y., Masaki, T., Kobayashi, K., Nakajima, A., … & Koike, S. 2016. Mountain-climbing bears protect cherry species from global warming through vertical seed dispersal. Current Biology 26(8): R315-R316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.002

New, TR 2016. Alien insects and insect conservation. In TR New (Ed.), Alien species and insect conservation (pp. 129-174). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38774-1_6

Nishida, S., Kawahara, K., Yasukochi, H., Eda, M., Koike, Y., & Iwamoto, T. 2022. The origin of "bear paws" in Takachiho Town, Miyazaki Prefecture, and its molecular phylogenetic analysis—DNA analysis of Asiatic black bears from the Sobosan mountain range in Kyushu—. Mammalian Science 62(1): 3-10. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.62.3

Noguchi, D., & Ikeda, K. 2022. Intraguild predation on hornets and yellowjackets of vespine wasps by spiders, and vice versa. Serket 18(3): 287-298. http://hdl.handle.net/10069/00041479

Naohiko Sagara. 2021. Mushrooms and Animals. Tsukiji Shokan, Tokyo. 274pp. ISBN: 9784806716150

Sato, Kiwa. 2005. Diet of brown bears: Regional differences and annual variations. Mammalian Science 45(1): 79-84. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.45.79

Sato, Kiwa. 2018. Forests as habitats for brown bears and their management—natural forests, plantations, understory vegetation, and deer. Northern Forest Research 66: 1-3. https://doi.org/10.24494/jfsh.66.0_1

Sawada, Akiko. 2014. Mushroom-eating behavior in primates: Future challenges and possibilities. Primate Research 30(1): 5-21. https://doi.org/10.2354/psj.30.010

Taki, H., Okabe, K., Yamaura, Y., Matsuura, T., Sueyoshi, M., Makino, SI, & Maeto, K. 2010. Effects of landscape metrics on Apis and non-Apis pollinators and seed set in common buckwheat. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(7): 594-602. ISSN: 1439-1791, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2010.08.004

Tanaka, K. & Nagahiro, S. 2019. A comparison of subjective and inferential evaluations of the value of forest ecosystem services. Environmental Economics and Policy Studies 12(1): 44-58. https://doi.org/10.14927/reeps.12.1_44

Tsunamoto, Y., Tsuruga, H., Kobayashi, K., Sukegawa, T., & Asakura, T. 2024. Seed dispersal function of the brown bear Ursus arctos on Hokkaido Island in northern Japan: gut passage time, dispersal distance, germination, and effects of remaining pulp. Oecologia 204(3): 505-515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-024-05510-5

Ulyshen, M., Urban-Mead, KR, Dorey, JB, & Rivers, JW 2023. Forests are critically important to global pollinator diversity and enhance pollination in adjacent crops. Biological Reviews 98(4): 1118-1141. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12947

Both Japanese broom (Cytisus scoparius) and dwarf broom (Cytisus erythrosora) belong to the legume family and are classified under the genus Cytisus in Japan. They are characterized by their small, trifoliate compound leaves and yellow, butterfly-shaped flowers that bloom in spring. In horticulture, they are cultivated for ornamental purposes, but dwarf broom is increasingly being sold under the name "Japanese broom," leading to more confusion. However, there is a crucial difference in the leaves, and checking this will prevent any mistakes. Japanese broom flowers are known to "burst" to release pollen onto bees. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and ecology of the genus Cytisus.

What are Broom and Cryptomeria japonica?

Cytisus scoparius, also known as broom or scoparius, is a deciduous shrub native to Europe that is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes and sometimes escapes cultivation. In Japan, it is commonly cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant and sometimes escapes cultivation and becomes naturalized (Hayashi, 2019).

Genista x spachiana, also known as dwarf broom (Genista canariesis), is an evergreen shrub that is a horticultural hybrid of Genista canariesis and Genista stenopetala, native to the Canary Islands (off the northwest coast of Africa, a Spanish territory) (Sheppard et al., 2006). While the Ylist uses the scientific name Cytisus x spachianus, it is generally classified under the genus Genista. It is grown in warmer climates as a potted plant or garden tree.

Both belong to the legume family and are classified under the genus *Cytisus* in Japanese classification. They are characterized by having small, trifoliate compound leaves and producing yellow, butterfly-shaped flowers in the spring.

The Japanese name, originally genst or ginst in Dutch (derived from the Latin genista), was introduced to Japan during the Kyoho era of the Edo period. In Dutch studies books, it began to be written as enista, which later became enisuda with a voiced consonant, and the form genisuda appeared later, but ultimately it became enishida (Maeda, 2005).

Both are cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens, but many people may not be able to distinguish between the two species. The dwarf broom (Cytisus scoparius) is increasingly being sold under the name "Broom," leading to more confusion. They originate from different regions and are completely different species, so we want to reduce such misunderstandings.

What is the difference between Broom (Cytisus scoparius) and Dwarf Broom (Cytisus scoparius)?

The main difference between broom (Cytisus scoparius) and dwarf broom (Cytisus scoparius) lies primarily in their leaves (Hayashi, 2019).

Specifically, in broom (Cytisus scoparius), many leaves lack petioles, and there is a mixture of trifoliate and undivided leaves. The leaf tips are pointed, there are few hairs, and the leaves are dark green. In contrast, dwarf broom (Cytisus scoparius) has distinct petioles, only trifoliate leaves, the leaf tips are rounded, there are many hairs, and the leaves are light green.

Overall, broom (Cytisus scoparius) has a stiff appearance, and its leaves often grow straight upwards at an angle, but dwarf broom (Cytisus scoparius) has a softer appearance, and its leaves tend to droop.

Among the broom species, there is also the red-cheeked broom, Cytisus scoparius 'Andreanus', which has red keel petals on its flowers.

Currently, perhaps because of the abundance of flowers, the number of dwarf broom plants has increased considerably.

The "Ginette" in Plantagenet's name refers to the broom plant!?

Broom (Cytisus scoparius) has strong ties to European culture, and its yellow flowers are known as "golden flowers," highly valued for their beauty and hardiness.

The Plantagenet dynasty, which ruled England from 1154 to 1399, began when Henry II, Count of Anjou, of France, ascended to the English throne. The name Plantagenet comes from the French word "plante genêt," meaning "broom plant," and the word "genêt" comes from the Latin word "genista," meaning "broom."

As mentioned above, the Japanese word "enishida" can also be traced back to "genista," so they actually share the same etymology.

There are several theories as to why the name of the royal family was used for the broom plant. The most famous is that it was the nickname of Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, the father of Henry II, Count of Anjou, and that he wore a broom plant in his hat.

While it is confirmed that it was a nickname for Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, the story of him "wearing a broom in his hat" only became popular in the 16th and 17th centuries, and its etymological basis is weak. It has been suggested that it may have spread as a symbolic interpretation in later times (Plant, 2007).

One paper that points this out argues that while the possibility of using broom as a stab cannot be ruled out, it may have been used as a symbol of strong vitality, growth, and reproductive power, given its hairy buds and sturdy branches.

How is it pollinated? Do broom flowers "burst"?!

The pollination method of broom is typical of legumes, with butterfly-shaped flowers, and it is an insect-pollinated flower like other legumes (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000; Tanaka, 2001).

However, the pollination method is slightly different.

Butterfly-shaped flowers are divided into the standard petal (upper petal) and the wing petals (outer petals) and keel petals (inner petals) of the lower petals, and it is known that the wing petals reflect ultraviolet light.

In other words, while it appears as a uniformly yellow flower to humans, insects see the underside of the flower as having color.

Bees such as bumblebees, honeybees, and long-horned bees recognize these as nectar guides and are attracted to them, attempting to drink the nectar. However, broom flowers actually do not contain nectar.

The bee uses its middle and hind legs to brace itself on the keel petal of the broom flower, and this stimulation causes the keel petal to suddenly burst open, slamming the stamens and pistil that were contained within in a spring-like structure.

In this way, the broom plant successfully pollinates bees by sprinkling pollen from the tips of its stamens onto them, and by allowing pollen from other bees on their backs to adhere to the brooms.

It might seem that the lack of nectar is a disadvantage for the bees, but pollen is an important source of protein, so it's likely that the bees come specifically for this purpose.

References

Hayashi, Masayuki. (2019). Tree Leaves: Expanded and Revised Edition - Identifying 1300 Species Through Real-Life Scans. Yama-kei Publishers. ISBN: 9784635070447

Maeda, Tomoki. 2005. The Complete Dictionary of Japanese Etymology. Shogakukan. ISBN: 9784095011813

Plant, JS (2007). The tardy adoption of the Plantagenet surname. Nomina, 30, 57-84. ISSN: 0141-6340, https://www.snsbi.org.uk/Nomina_articles/Nomina_30_Plant.pdf

Sheppard, A., Haines, M., & Thomann, T. (2006). Native-range research assists risk analysis for non-targets in weed biological control: the cautionary tale of the broom seed beetle. Australian Journal of Entomology, 45 (4), 292-297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-6055.2006.00553.x

Tanaka, Hajime. (2001). Flowers and Insects: A Collection of Discoveries of Mysterious Deception. Kodansha. ISBN: 9784062691437

Tanaka, Hajime & Hirano, Takahisa. (2000). The Face of Flowers: Wisdom for Bearing Fruit. Yama-kei Publishers. ISBN: 9784635063043

The most distinctive feature of the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis), American redbud (Cercis rupestris), and European redbud (Cercis rupestris) is that, like cherry blossoms, they are densely covered in pink to purple, butterfly-shaped flowers characteristic of the legume family in spring before the leaves unfold. The Japanese redbud, which has been cultivated for a long time, is well-known, but in recent years, opportunities to see American redbuds and European redbuds have increased. These are increasingly being confused. However, their original distribution areas are quite different, and they can be clearly distinguished by carefully observing the shape of the leaves, the tree shape, and the flowers. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Cercis rupestris.

What are the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis), American redbud (Cercis chinensis), and European redbud (Cercis chinensis)?

Cercis chinensis, also known as Hanazuho or Suoubana, is a deciduous shrub to small tree distributed in eastern China, introduced to the Korean Peninsula, the Caucasus, and Ukraine. In Japan, it has long been cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens and other areas (RBG Kew, 2025).

American redbud (Cercis canadensis) is a deciduous shrub to small tree distributed in the eastern United States, introduced to the Caucasus, Ukraine, and Romania, and rarely cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes.

The European redbud, Cercis siliquastrum, is also known as the Judas tree. It is a deciduous shrub to small tree distributed along the Mediterranean coast of Europe (France to Bulgaria) and in West Asia (Turkey to Afghanistan). The name "Judas tree" is sometimes said to originate from the belief that Judas hanged himself from a redbud tree, causing its flowers to turn reddish, but this is likely a translation error, and the original name was probably "Jewish tree."

All of these plants belong to the genus Cercis in the legume family, and their most distinctive feature is that clusters of reddish-purple flowers bloom on the previous year's branches or older branches before the leaves unfold.

Therefore, when you see a dense cluster of pink to purple butterfly-shaped flowers, characteristic of the legume family, in spring, just like cherry blossoms, you can immediately recognize it as a member of the Judas tree family. The Japanese name comes from the fact that the color of the flowers resembles the color of the juice used to dye with sappanwood (Biancaea sappan), a dye plant also belonging to the legume family.

Furthermore, the fact that the entire leaf is circular and the base (leaf leg) is indented in a heart shape is quite unique.

While it is relatively easy to distinguish them from other groups, the cultivation of the American redbud (Cercis chinensis) in recent years has led to increased confusion.

Furthermore, some gardening websites even state that American redbud and European redbud are the same species.

What are the differences between the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis), the American redbud (Cercis chinensis), and the European redbud (Cercis ruficollis)?

However, the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis), the American redbud (Cercis chinensis), and the European redbud (Cercis erythrosora) are completely different species (Mogi et al., 2000; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2023; Ali, 1973).

As a fundamental point, the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis) is native to China, the American redbud (Cercis chinensis) is native to the United States, and the European redbud (Cercis erythrosora) is native to Europe and West Asia. These are geographically distant, and it is likely that their ancestors diverged, resulting in them being completely different species.

However, it's true that sometimes it's difficult to distinguish between them.

To accurately distinguish between the three species, it is necessary to observe the leaves that unfold after flowering.

While both have rounded leaves, the difference lies in the fact that the tips of the leaves of the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis) and the American redbud (Cercis chinensis) elongate into a tail-like shape, whereas those of the European redbud (Cercis chinensis) do not. This difference is clear.

Comparing the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis) and the American redbud (Cercis erythrosora), the Japanese redbud is almost hairless except for hairs at the base of the veins on the underside of the leaf, whereas the American redbud may have hairs all over the underside of its leaf.

However, it's complicated because there are individual differences in the underside of the leaves of the American redbud, with some having no hairs. You'll need to examine several leaves. The leaves of the Japanese redbud and the American redbud are quite similar.

However, this is not the only factor to consider; observing the tree's shape will lead to a more accurate assessment.

Regarding tree shape, the difference is that the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis) grows in clumps, while the American redbud (Cercis chinensis) and European redbud (Cercis rupestris) grow as single stems.

A clump-forming plant refers to a tree shape where multiple stems grow from the base of the plant.

Therefore, the shape of the Judas tree is quite different from the typical image of a tree with a single, sturdy trunk. Another advantage is that its unique shape can be observed throughout the year.

Therefore, if you check the leaves and the shape of the tree, you are unlikely to make a mistake.

There are also differences when it comes to flowers.

One difference between the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis) and the European redbud (Cercis chinensis) is that their petals are reddish-purple, while those of the American redbud (Cercis chinensis) are light pink.

Comparing the Japanese redbud (Cercis chinensis) and the European redbud (Cercis chinensis), the Japanese redbud has dark-colored nectar guides (patterns that attract insects) on its standard petal, while the European redbud does not have any special patterns visible to the human eye.

By the way, this is a bit confusing, but in most legumes, the standard petal is on the outside of the wing petals, but in the Judas tree genus, it's on the inside. This is a minor detail, so for Judas trees, it's fine to just think of it as "the flower has a pattern."

References

Ali, SI 1973. Flora of Pakistan (Vol. 54 Caesalpiniaceae). University of Karachi, Karachi. 47pp. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=10142

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2023. Flora of North America (Vol. 11 Magnoliophyta: Fabaceae, Parts 1 and 2). Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1108pp. ISBN: 9780197619803

Mogi, Toru; Ota, Kazuo; Katsuyama, Teruo; Takahashi, Hideo; Shirokawa, Shiro; Yoshiyama, Hiroshi; Ishii, Hidemi; Sakio, Hitoshi; and Nakagawa, Shigetoshi. 2000. Flowers Blooming on Trees: Polypetalous Flowers (Vol. 2, 2nd edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 719pp. ISBN: 9784635070041

RBG Kew. 2025. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Vicia cracca, hairy vetch, slender vetch, and velvet vetch all belong to the Vicia genus of the Fabaceae family. They are characterized by bearing numerous butterfly-shaped purple flowers in racemes of 10 to 30 in spring, and having five or more pairs of leaflets. From a distance, they look very similar, and in horticulture, slender vetch and velvet vetch are not distinguished. First, hairy vetch is a general term for slender vetch, velvet vetch, and false slender vetch. Vicia cracca, slender vetch, and velvet vetch can be distinguished mainly by the shape of the flowers and the overall hairiness. False slender vetch is a recently named subspecies, and it is also necessary to distinguish it from the others. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and ecology of the Vicia genus, which bears flowers in racemes.

What are Vicia cracca, Hairy Vetch, Slender Vicia, and Velvet Vicia?

Vicia cracca, also known as garden vetch or grass vetch, is a perennial herb widely distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In Honshu, it mainly grows in highland grasslands (Takahashi, 2003; Wu et al., 2010).

Vicia villosa subsp. varia, also known as weak-grass wisteria, is native to Europe and is cultivated in Japan as fodder and green manure. Its naturalization on Amakusa Island was reported in 1943, and it is now an annual or biennial plant that grows along roadsides, vacant lots, and riverbanks in urban areas from Honshu to Okinawa (Shimizu et al., 2001).

Vicia villosa subsp. villosa, also known as velvet vetch, is native to Europe, North Africa, and West Asia. In Japan, it is cultivated as pasture grass and green manure, and is an annual or biennial plant that has escaped cultivation in various regions.

Hairy vetch is a general term that includes the above-mentioned Vicia villosa subsp. eriocarpa in addition to Vicia vetch and Vicia villosa subsp. eriocarpa. In horticulture, it is likely that seeds of all three subspecies are sold as a mixture.

All of these plants belong to the genus Vicia in the family Fabaceae, and their most distinctive feature is the raceme of numerous purple, butterfly-shaped flowers, ranging from 10 to 30 in number, that appear in spring. The leaflets are oval to oblong, less than 12 mm wide, and there are five or more pairs of them.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #153] What are the types of legumes? Photo list

The Fabaceae family is a large family of vascular plants, second only to the Asteraceae and Orchidaceae families in terms of the number of species it contains. It includes many useful plants used for food and other purposes, and is deeply connected to human life. It includes herbs and woody plants ranging from annual to perennial, with many being climbing or possessing tendrils...

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Vicia cracca, in particular, is often seen growing in clusters along riverbanks in the spring, and is sometimes eradicated because it is considered an invasive species.

However, these plants look very similar from a distance and are often confused, and many people may not be aware of the existence of the three varieties of hairy vetch.

What are the differences between Vicia cracca, Vicia hirsuta, and Vicia angustifolia?

First, as can be seen from the scientific names, Vicia cracca, Vicia hirsuta, and Vicia angustifolia are completely different species, but Vicia hirsuta and Vicia angustifolia are subspecies.

Therefore, there are significant differences between Vicia cracca and Vicia hirsuta/Vicia angustifolia (Takahashi, 2003; Wu et al., 2010).

First and foremost, it's important to understand that while Vicia cracca is a native species, Vicia hirsuta and Vicia angustifolia are introduced species originally from Europe.

The definitive morphological difference lies in the way the pedicel, the part connecting the flower to the stem, is attached. In Vicia cracca, the pedicel is attached to the tip of the calyx tube, whereas in Vicia hirsuta and Vicia angustifolia, the pedicel is attached slightly below the tip.

Regarding the length of the corolla, there is a difference in size: Vicia cracca is small, measuring 8-13 mm, while Vicia hirsuta and Vicia angustifolia are larger, measuring 15 mm.

For starters, the habitat of Vicia cracca is different: Vicia hirsuta prefers mountainous areas, while Vicia angustifolia and Vicia cracca var. japonica prefer roadsides and riverbanks in urban areas. This alone makes them almost indistinguishable.

Also, although it's a little confusing, Vicia cracca is a perennial plant, while Vicia hirsuta is an annual plant, so Vicia hirsuta is a bit softer. This is the origin of its Japanese name, "weak grass wisteria."

Regarding Vicia cracca and Vicia angustifolia, Vicia cracca has fewer hairs on its leaves and stems, and the length of its calyx lobes is shorter than the length of its calyx tube, whereas Vicia angustifolia has many hairs on its leaves and stems, and the length of its calyx lobes is longer than the length of its calyx tube (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

The name "velvet vetch" comes from its resemblance to velvet, a smooth and lustrous fabric with many fine hairs, and accurately reflects its characteristic abundance of hairs.

Think of the calyx lobes as the thorn-like parts that protrude from the calyx tube. In Vicia cracca, these parts are clearly longer.

Are there any other similar species? What are the differences between this and *Vicia cracca*?

One variety that is rarely searched for and is often confused with Vicia cracca is Vicia japonica 'Nayokusa-modoki'. It was recently given a new name.

Vicia villosa subsp. eriocarpa is a variety of Vicia villosa that closely resembles it, but its fruit (i.e., the pod of the legume) is hairy, and its calyx lobes are even shorter than those of Vicia villosa, protruding only slightly from the calyx tube.

How is pollination done? Those long, slender flower tubes are easy targets for theft!?

The butterfly-shaped flowers, a characteristic feature of legumes, are generally pollinated by bees that can push open their petals.

Like other species, Vicia cracca is favored by bees of the families Apidae, Apidae, and Apidae, as has been revealed through research in its native Germany, as well as in Jordan and Japan (Benedek et al., 1973; Al-Ghzawi et al., 2009; Sugiura, 2018; Mineno et al., 2021). In the Oki Islands, diurnal moths of the Sphingidae family are also thought to be pollinators.

In residential areas on the Japanese mainland, approximately 50% of the bees were white-striped longhorn bees and approximately 25% were European honeybees (Mineno et al., 2021).

However, while long-tongued bumblebees such as the Apogonidae and Bombus ignitus, as well as Sphingidae, utilize their long mouthparts to effectively contribute to pollination, short-tongued bumblebees such as the Carpenter bee and Bombus spp. have been observed directly drilling holes in the flower tube to extract nectar (Benedek et al., 1973; Sugiura, 2018). This is called primary nectar robbing.

Furthermore, honeybees and short-tongued bees will suck nectar from these holes. This is called secondary robbing.

The long flower tube of *Nayofujikusa* may have evolved to allow insects with long mouthparts to pollinate it, but there are also examples of this kind of unilateral exploitation.

References

Al-Ghzawi, AAM, Samarah, N., Zaitoun, S., & Alqudah, A. 2009. Impact of bee pollinators on seed set and yield of Vicia villosa spp. dasycarpa (Leguminosae) grown under semiarid conditions. Italian Journal of Animal Science 8(1): 65-74. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2009.65

Benedek, P., Bank, L., & Komlódi, J. 1973. Behavior of wild bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) on hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.) flowers. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 74(1-4): 80-85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.1973.tb01782.x

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Mineno, M., Nagayama, M., & Yamamoto, K. 2021. Spreading of Vicia cracca in familiar locations: Identification of pollinators outside riverbanks and examination of harvesting timing. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of Japan 68: PH-24. https://esj.ne.jp/meeting/abst/68/PH-24.html

Shimizu, K., Morita, H., & Hirota, S. 2001. Illustrated Guide to Naturalized Plants of Japan: 600 Species of Plant Invaders (Revised). National Rural Education Association, Tokyo. 553pp. ISBN: 9784881370858

Sugiura, 2018. Flower Visitors to the Alien Plant Vicia villosa (Fabaceae) in the Oki Islands. Bulletin of the Hoshizaki Green Foundation 21: 97-102. ISSN: 1343-0807, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348306413

Takahashi, Hideo. 2003. Wild Edible Plants of Japan. Gakken Plus, 248pp. ISBN: 9784054018815

Wu, ZY, Raven, PH, & Hong, DY (Eds.). 2010. Flora of China (Vol. 10 Fabaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. ISBN: 9781930723917

Lespedeza bicolor, Lespedeza thunbergii, Lespedeza thunbergii, and Lespedeza thunbergii are all perennial herbs belonging to the genus Lespedeza in the family Fabaceae. They are small, less than 10mm in length, and do not become woody. A major common feature is that their petals are primarily white with purple markings that serve as nectar guides, which may make it difficult for some to distinguish them. These four common species can be distinguished relatively easily by observing the stalk of the inflorescence, the shape of the leaflets, and their growth patterns. However, there are many species with names like "Lespedeza thunbergii," so if you find characteristics that differ from the photos below, it is recommended to consult a field guide. This article will explain the classification and morphology of herbaceous plants in the genus Lespedeza.

What are Lespedeza bicolor, Lespedeza thunbergii, Lespedeza cyanea, and Lespedeza thunbergii?

Lespedeza pilosa var. pilosa, also known as cat bush clover, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Korea and China, growing on embankments and in grasslands (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Lespedeza tomentosa, also known as dog bush clover, is a perennial herb distributed throughout Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Ryukyu Islands) and East Asia, growing in sandy areas near the coast and riverbanks.

Lespedeza cuneata var. cuneate, also known as Medohagi, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, as well as in East Asia, growing in riverbeds and grasslands. In Korea and China, it is sometimes consumed as a medicinal herb in the form of "Medohagi tea."

Lespedeza cuneata var. serpens, also known as creeping bush clover, is a perennial herb distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, growing on coastal sandy beaches and in grasslands and meadows near the coast.

All of these plants belong to the genus Lespedeza in the legume family, and are perennial herbs belonging to a small group that is less than 10 mm in length and does not become woody. Lespedeza thunbergii, in particular, is a relatively common plant and is often considered a "weed."

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #153] What are the types of legumes? Photo list

The Fabaceae family is a large family of vascular plants, second only to the Asteraceae and Orchidaceae families in terms of the number of species it contains. It includes many useful plants used for food and other purposes, and is deeply connected to human life. It includes herbs and woody plants ranging from annual to perennial, with many being climbing or possessing tendrils...

ecological-information.com

Like other plants in the Fabaceae family, it has trifoliate compound leaves, butterfly-shaped flowers, and a pod (with a pericarp characteristic of the Fabaceae family) and a bean (a seed characteristic of the Fabaceae family).

In addition, the fact that the flowers have both open and closed forms, the petals are primarily white with some purple coloring to serve as nectar guides, and the legumes lack a stalk between the calyx and the pod are all common features of the four species mentioned above.

Therefore, many people may not be able to tell the difference between them. Since the names *Nekohagi* and *Inuhagi* are paired, you might be curious about the difference.

What are the differences between Lespedeza bicolor, Lespedeza thunbergii, Lespedeza cyanea, and Lespedeza thunbergii?

In Japan, there are about 12 known species of the genus Lespedeza that do not develop woody tissue, and it is not possible to introduce all the methods of distinguishing them here. However, the four species mentioned above, which are relatively common, can be distinguished relatively easily (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, while the stalks of the inflorescences of *Lespedeza bicolor*, *Lespedeza thunbergii*, and *Lespedeza thunbergii* are short and inconspicuous, *Lespedeza cuneata* has inflorescences with distinct stalks that are 1 cm or longer.

You'll also notice that the number of flowers in the dog bush clover is remarkably large.

Regarding the remaining three species, the difference lies in the shape of the leaflets of the trifoliate compound leaves: in Lespedeza bicolor, the leaflets are oval, while in Lespedeza thunbergii and Lespedeza thunbergii, the leaflets are oblanceolate to linear.

Furthermore, Lespedeza bicolor differs from Lespedeza thunbergii and Lespedeza thunbergii in that the hairs on the leaves are conspicuously prominent, and the tips of the leaflets are almost completely rounded.

The difference between Lespedeza cuneata and Lespedeza bicolor lies in the fact that Lespedeza cuneata has upright stems, while Lespedeza bicolor lies along the ground.

These two species are related as varieties, but when you actually compare the shapes of their leaves and flowers in photographs, they appear even more different than what can be described in words. Please take a look at the following photos.

Lespedeza x intermixta is a rare hybrid of Lespedeza thunbergii and Lespedeza bicolor, characterized by its long, creeping stems with spreading hairs.

Are there any other similar species?

The genus Lespedeza includes some representative groups such as Lespedeza bicolor, which are woody, large, and over 10mm in length, but they are usually shrubs so you won't mistake them for anything else.

However, there are many herbaceous plants with names like "○○ Medohagi," so it's impossible to list them all here.

Lespedeza juncea, also known as Siberian bush clover, differs from bush clover and common bush clover in that its cleistogamous flowers have three-veined sepals, its legumes are densely covered with hairs, and its open flowers have pedicels that are 2-3 mm long. It is a rare naturalized species.

Lespedeza inschanica is a rare naturalized species that differs from Lespedeza and Lespedeza bicolor in that its cleistogamous flowers have three-veined sepals, its legumes are densely covered with hairs, and the pedicels of its open flowers are about 1 mm long.

There are also varieties with different flower colors. For information on other varieties, please refer to the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018).

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Both Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth) and Gomphrena globosa (yellow globe amaranth) belong to the genus Gomphrena in the Amaranthaceae family. Their bright, almost fluorescent-colored flowers and long flowering periods make them popular ornamental plants frequently planted in gardens. However, some people may not fully understand the differences between these two species. While the Japanese name includes "American" to distinguish them, both are native to the Americas. These two species can be distinguished by observing their leaves and flowers. Observing the leaves, in particular, will allow for accurate differentiation. We have also listed other distinguishing features from commonly confused species. This article will explain the classification of the genus Gomphrena.

What are Gomphrena globosa and Gomphrena globosa (yellow Gomphrena)?

Gomphrena globrosa, also known as globe amaranth, is an annual plant native to Central and South America (Mexico to Brazil) that grows in barren land (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 2004; RBG Kew, 2023). It is cultivated as an ornamental plant all over the world, including Japan.

American globe amaranth (Gomphrena haageana) is also known as yellow globe amaranth (Yellow Gomphrena). This is the more common name used in horticulture. Native to Central America (southern United States to Mexico), it is a perennial plant that grows on rocky banks. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant all over the world, including Japan. The variety called 'Strawberry Fields' is commonly available.

Both belong to the genus Gomphrena in the Amaranthaceae family, and are popular ornamental plants frequently planted in gardens, perhaps due to their vivid, almost fluorescent-colored flowers and long flowering periods. In Japan, they are also commonly seen as cut flowers placed on Buddhist altars. The name Sennichikou (千日紅) comes from the belief that they bloom longer than Sarusuberi (百日紅).

Since they belong to the Amaranthaceae family, there is no distinction between petals and sepals in the flowers; they are simply called "perianth segments." Among them, the genus Gomphrena shares the common characteristics of having opposite leaves and inflorescences that are capitulum.

However, some people may not fully understand the difference between these two species. In Japan, they are distinguished by the addition of "America" to their names, but both are native to the Americas.

What is the difference between Gomphrena globosa and Gomphrena globosa (yellow Gomphrena)?

Gomphrena globosa and Gomphrena globosa (yellow gomphrena) can be distinguished by their flowers and leaves (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 2004; RBG Kew, 2023).

First, while the flowers of the common globe amaranth are usually pink, white, or crimson, the flowers of the American globe amaranth are bright red to yellow. This is consistent with the Japanese name.

Both globe amaranth and American globe amaranth have been selectively bred for ornamental purposes, so there is considerable variation in color, but this method of distinguishing between most varieties seems to be sufficient.

Even more reliable is observing the leaves. Since the leaves haven't been selectively bred, they provide a valuable clue for distinguishing between species.

The difference between Gomphrena globosa and Gomphrena globosa lies in their leaf shape: Gomphrena globosa has leaves that are oblong to oblong-obovate, while Gomphrena globosa var. japonica has leaves that are oblanceolate to oblong-linear.

These are technical terms, so they might be a little difficult to understand, but basically, you can think of it as the leaves of Gomphrena globosa being thick, and the leaves of Gomphrena globosa being thin.

As mentioned above, another difference is that globe amaranth is an annual plant, while American globe amaranth is a perennial plant.

What is the difference between Gomphrena globosa (Gomphrena globosa) and Crape Myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica)?

The difference between Gomphrena globosa (Gomphrena globosa) and Lagerstroemia indica (Crape Myrtle) seems to be a frequently searched topic.

However, Lagerstroemia indica belongs to the genus Lagerstroemia in the family Lythraceae, and its classification is completely different.

Gomphrena globosa is a herbaceous plant, while crape myrtle is a tree, and their flower shapes are not similar. They may share some similarity in that they both have pink flowers, but they are completely different species. The name is merely a reference to the other plant.

What's the difference between crape myrtle and striped crape myrtle? We explain how to distinguish between similar species! Did you know that flowers use false pollen as bait to successfully pollinate?! An amazing tactic to deceive bees! Seed dispersal isn't just by wind?!

Both crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica) and Japanese crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica) are commonly planted in Japan and can be seen in many places, even in urban areas. While their smooth bark makes them easy to distinguish from other species, the two species are so similar in morphology that they are often confused...

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What is the difference between Gomphrena globosa (Gomphrena globosa) and Sanguisorba officinalis (Sanguisorba officinalis)?

The difference between Gomphrena globosa (Gomphrena globosa) and Sanguisorba officinalis (Sanguisorba officinalis) is also a frequently searched topic. Indeed, the shape of their red inflorescences is somewhat similar.

However, Sanguisorba officinalis belongs to the genus Sanguisorba in the family Rosaceae, and is classified completely differently from Gomphrena globosa.

A clear difference between Sanguisorba officinalis and Gomphrena globosa is that Sanguisorba officinalis has odd-pinnately compound leaves with 5 to 15 leaflets, and the oblong leaflets have fine serrations.

What is the difference between globe amaranth and white clover?

The difference between Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth) and white clover (Trifolium repens) is also a frequently searched topic. Their inflorescences may be somewhat similar.

However, white clover (Trifolium repens) belongs to the legume family, and its leaves are compound leaves, consisting of three leaflets. You can easily see the difference by observing the leaves.

References

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2004. Flora of North America (Vol. 4 Magnoliophyta: Caryophyllidae, Part 1). Oxford University Press, 584pp. ISBN: 9780195173895

RBG Kew. 2023. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Cassia obtusifolia, Cassia occidentalis, and Cassia tomentosa are all annual plants belonging to the legume family and were once classified in the same genus. Common features include their once-pinnately compound leaves with opposite leaflets and their nearly identical flowers with five yellow petals. Of the three, Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis are often confused because they both belong to the Senna genus. However, they can be clearly distinguished by examining the shape of their leaves and the location of their extrafloral nectaries. The dried seeds of Cassia obtusifolia are called "Ketsumeishi" and are said to be the origin of the name of a famous Japanese music group, meaning "to expel everything," due to their laxative properties. While "Habu tea" was originally made from the beans (seeds) of Cassia occidentalis, it may not be widely known that Cassia obtusifolia beans (seeds) are now used. This article will explain the classification and uses of Cassia obtusifolia, Cassia occidentalis, and Cassia tomentosa.

What are Ebisu-gusa, Habusou, and Kawaraketsumei?

Senna obtusifolia, also known as Ebisu-gusa, is an annual plant native to tropical America. It is cultivated mainly in tropical regions, including Eurasia, for its seeds used medicinally or for drinking. In Japan, it occasionally escapes cultivation and becomes naturalized (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). The medicinal name for its seeds is Ketsumeishi, which is the origin of the name of a famous Japanese music group.

Senna occidentalis, also known as hub grass, is native to tropical America and is cultivated in tropical regions, including Eurasia, for its seeds used medicinally or for drinking. It is an annual plant that occasionally escapes cultivation and becomes naturalized in Japan.

Chamaecrista nomame, also known as riverbank cassia, is an annual plant that grows in sunny grasslands and is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in Korea and China.

Both are annual plants belonging to the legume family and were once classified in the same genus. Their common features include once-pinnately compound leaves with opposite leaflets, and flowers that are nearly identical in shape and have five yellow petals.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #153] What are the types of legumes? Photo list

The Fabaceae family is a large family of vascular plants, second only to the Asteraceae and Orchidaceae families in terms of the number of species it contains. It includes many useful plants used for food and other purposes, and is deeply connected to human life. It includes herbs and woody plants ranging from annual to perennial, with many being climbing or possessing tendrils...

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Of course, since the fruit belongs to the legume family, it is a legume, consisting of a pod (the pericarp characteristic of legumes) and a bean (the seed characteristic of legumes).

Of the three species, Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis both belong to the genus Senna and are very similar, often leading to confusion. They are also similar in that they are used for food and medicine.

What are the differences between Cassia obtusifolia/Cassia japonica and Cassia nomame?

First, there are taxonomical differences between Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia nomame.

Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis belong to the genus Senna, while Cassia tora belongs to the genus Cassia.

Therefore, it can be expected that there will be differences in morphology as well.

Specifically, in the genus Senna, there are no bracteoles at the base of the calyx, and the legume is either dehiscent or indehiscent, with the individual segments not curling spirally even when dehiscent, whereas in the genus Cassia, there are bracteoles at the base of the calyx, and the legume splits into two segments, with each segment curling spirally.

However, these characteristics are quite precise, and it's quicker to check the shape of the leaves.

While Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis have fewer leaflets (2-6 pairs) and are ovate to elliptical in shape, Cassia tomentosa has 15 or more pairs of leaflets and is narrowly oblong in shape. In short, Cassia tomentosa has more leaflets and a narrower shape.

If you know that there are differences in the leaves, you won't mistake them for each other.

What is the difference between Ebisu-gusa and Habusou?

Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis are two species that belong to the same genus but are quite similar.

The difference lies in the leaves and extrafloral nectaries (nectaries located outside the flowers that attract ants).

In Cassia obscura, the leaflets are obovate to obovate-elliptic with a rounded tip and have one nectary on the leaf axis, whereas in Cassia occidentalis, the leaflets are ovate to ovate-elliptic with a pointed tip and have one nectary at the base of the petiole.

In other words, the senna plant has nectaries inside its leaves. The nectaries of the senna plant are quite large, brown, and cone-shaped, making them very noticeable, so take a good look.

While approximately seven species of the genus Senna have been confirmed to have naturalized in Japan, most of them are woody plants and will be omitted here.

What are the differences in the uses of Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis?

You might also be curious about the differences in the uses of Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia occidentalis.

In Japan, the Habusou plant got its name because it was once introduced as a folk remedy for bites from venomous insects and snakes, especially the Habu. It has also been used medicinally worldwide. Habu tea is famous, and originally, the beans (seeds) of the Habusou plant, called "Wang Jiangnan," were roasted and their components were extracted with water. However, because the yield of Habusou seeds is poor, Ebisu-gusa (a type of senna) has taken its place.

Furthermore, while it has been used as food in the Maldives and India, it is now known to contain a toxic anthraquinone derivative called emodin (Vashishtha et al., 2009), and is considered a cause of encephalopathy called "acute HME syndrome," leading to a decrease in its consumption (Panwar, 2012). However, there are various theories as to whether the cause of acute HME syndrome is truly due to the senna plant.

On the other hand, the dried seeds of Cassia obtusifolia are called " Ketsumeishi " and are used in various ways. Currently, they are produced in China, North Korea, India, Thailand, and other countries. Ketsumeishi is said to have laxative effects that improve bowel movements, reduce eye redness, and have diuretic effects.

As mentioned above, the seeds of the senna plant are now used as a substitute for "habu tea." It might be worth knowing that what is currently sold commercially in Japan is actually what should really be called "senna tea."

Globally, it spread earlier than in Japan and is called "Kyeolmyeongja tea," and is consumed not only in East Asia (China and South Korea) but also in Southeast Asia (Thailand, etc.).

In summary, it seems that Cassia obtusifolia is not used much these days, and Cassia occidentalis is a more familiar plant.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Panwar, RS 2012. Disappearance of a deadly disease acute hepatomyoencephalopathy syndrome from Saharanpur. Indian Journal of Medical Research 135(1): 131-132. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-5916.93436

Vashishtha, VM, John, TJ, & Kumar, A. 2009. Clinical & pathological features of acute toxicity due to Cassia occidentalis in vertebrates. Indian Journal of Medical Research 130(1): 23-30. https://journals.lww.com/ijmr/Abstract/2009/30010/Clinical___pathological_features_of_acute_toxicity.6.aspx

Phyllanthus urinaria, Phyllanthus gracilis, and Phyllanthus longifolius all belong to the Phyllanthus genus of the Phyllanthaceae family. These annual plants grow in fields and along roadsides, and are more striking for their numerous small, orange-like green to red fruits than for their flowers. While these three species are frequently found within the Phyllanthus genus, distinguishing them requires careful observation. Specifically, the length of the flower stalks and fruit stalks is the most important factor, and the surface of the fruit and the leaves from the main stem can also be helpful. This article will explain the classification of the Phyllanthus genus.

What are *Phyllanthus urinaria*, *Phyllanthus urinaria*, and *Phyllanthus longifolius*?

Phyllanthus lepidocarpus, also known as small mandarin orange grass, is an annual plant found in fields and roadsides, distributed throughout Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; as well as in East and Southeast Asia (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). While the Japanese Wikipedia lists it as Phyllanthus urinaria, this is a synonym (former scientific name).

Phyllanthus ussuriensis, also known as Himemikansou (dwarf citrus grass), is an annual plant distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, as well as East Asia, growing in fields and along roadsides.

Phyllanthus tenellus, also known as long-stalked citrus grass, is native to the Mascarene Islands (a French overseas territory and the Republic of Mauritius) off the eastern coast of Madagascar in Africa. It is an annual plant that grows in fields and along roadsides. In recent years, its distribution has rapidly expanded, and it has become naturalized in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, as well as in tropical regions worldwide.

All of these plants belong to the genus Phyllanthus in the family Phyllanthaceae. They grow in fields and along roadsides, and are annual plants that are more striking for their countless small, orange-like green fruits that turn red when ripe, rather than their flowers.

Another notable feature is that the leaves have entire margins and are arranged in two rows on either side, giving them the appearance of pinnately compound leaves, which might lead one to mistakenly believe it belongs to the legume family. However, it does not actually have pinnately compound leaves like legumes.

The small, green to red fruits, similar to mandarins, are capsules that split open when dry, releasing the seeds, which are then dispersed by wind and water (Gavilán, 2022). Therefore, they are not actually edible like the fleshy berries of mandarins.

Because of these common features, they are indistinguishable from a distance, and the three species are easily confused.

What are the differences between *Phyllanthus urinaria*, *Phyllanthus urinaria*, and *Phyllanthus longifolius*?

There are 16 species of Phyllanthus native to Japan, and 4 species have naturalized, so it is not possible to describe how to distinguish all the species in Japan here. However, the three species that are frequently found on the mainland are easy to distinguish (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

The most obvious difference is the condition of the pedicel (the thin part connecting the flower to the plant) and the fruit stalk (the thin part connecting the fruit to the plant).

While *Phyllanthus urinaria* and *Phyllanthus longifolius* have both flower stalks and fruit stalks, *Phyllanthus urinaria* has almost no flower stalks or fruit stalks.

Therefore, in citrus fruits, the flowers and fruits are attached tightly to the leaf axils.

Regarding *Phyllanthus urinaria* and *Phyllanthus longifolius*, the main difference is that *Phyllanthus urinaria* has short flower stalks of 0.4–1.8 mm and fruit stalks of 1–3.5 mm in length, while *Phyllanthus longifolius* has considerably longer flower and fruit stalks of 5–8 mm in length.

This plant is easy to remember because its Japanese name, Nagaekomikansou (long-stalked small mandarin orange grass), perfectly describes it. No other species has such long flower stalks or fruit stalks.

The above should be sufficient for distinguishing them, but I will also list a few other characteristics just in case.

While *Phyllanthus urinaria* and *Phyllanthus longifolius* do not have leaves on their main stems, *Phyllanthus urinaria* has leaves on its main stem along with its twigs.

While the fruit surfaces of *Phyllanthus urinaria* and *Phyllanthus longifolius* are smooth, the fruit surface of *Phyllanthus urinaria* is densely covered with scale-like protrusions.

In addition, the species * Phyllanthus amarus*, also known as tree lily, has naturalized in Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands, but it can be distinguished from other species by the fact that its main stem does not bear leaves, its fruit is stalked and smooth, the fruit stalk is 0.8-1.2 mm long, and the base of the leaves is rounded.

References

Gavilán, JV 2022. Phyllanthus urinaria (chamber bitter). CABI Compendium. https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.46061

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Tankirimame, Tokirimame, and Nosasage are all members of the legume family and are common climbing perennial herbs found in the forest edges of Japan. They share similarities such as having trifoliate compound leaves, butterfly-shaped flowers that bloom from summer to autumn, and yellow flowers, which can sometimes make them difficult to distinguish. However, these three species have clear differences in their leaves, flowers, and fruits, so you should be able to easily identify them by observing any one of them. This article will explain the classification of Tankirimame, Tokirimame, and Nosasage.

What are Tankirimame, Tokirimame, and Nosasage?

Rhynchosia volubilis, also known as "thumb-removing bean," is a climbing perennial herb that grows at the edges of forests and is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; as well as in Korea, China, and the Philippines (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Rhynchosia acuminatifolia, also known as Tokirimame (or Oobatankirimame), is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Honshu and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in Korea, growing on forest edges and embankments.

Dumasia truncata, also known as wild cowpea, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, growing in bright woodlands and forest edges.

Both belong to the legume family and are common climbing perennial herbs found at the edges of forests in Japan.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #153] What are the types of legumes? Photo list

The Fabaceae family is a large family of vascular plants, second only to the Asteraceae and Orchidaceae families in terms of the number of species it contains. It includes many useful plants used for food and other purposes, and is deeply connected to human life. It includes herbs and woody plants ranging from annual to perennial, with many being climbing or possessing tendrils...

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Morphologically, these three species share several common characteristics: their leaves are trifoliate, typical of legumes; their flowers bloom from summer to autumn and are butterfly-shaped; and their flowers are yellow. When the fruit ripens, the pod splits open, exposing the seeds.

Tankirimame and Tokirimame are even more similar, with their flowers and fruits being almost identical.

Therefore, some people may not be able to distinguish them when they see them outdoors.

What are the differences between Rhynchospora bellaria, Rhynchospora bellaria, and Vigna angularis?

However, the leaf and flower shapes of these three species are quite different.

First, since Rhynchospora bellata and Rhynchospora tokiri bean belong to the Rhynchospora genus, and Vigna angularis belongs to the Vigna genus, you can expect there to be significant differences between them.

A specific difference is that species in the genus Rhynchospermum have glandular dots on the underside of their leaves, while species in the genus Vigna do not.

This is very subtle, but if you look at the underside of the leaves of Rhynchospora cyanea and Rhynchospora cyanea with the naked eye or a magnifying glass, you will be able to see countless tiny yellow, bead-like objects.

If we limit ourselves to Rhynchospora rhynchophylla and Rhynchospora rhynchophylla, both belonging to the Rhynchospora genus, there are other differences as well.

Regarding the leaves, *Rhynchospora cyanea* and *Rhynchospora tokiri* have many hairs and wrinkles on the upper surface and a somewhat pale green on the underside, while *Vigna angularis* has fewer hairs and wrinkles on the upper surface and a distinctly whitish underside. This difference is easy to observe in any season.

Regarding the flowers, *Rhynchospora bellaria* and *Rhynchospora tokirimame* have sepals (the pointed parts that extend from the green calyx that encloses the flower), whereas *Vigna angularis* has almost no sepals.

Regarding the fruit, Tankiri-mame and Tokiri-mame contain only two seeds (beans) and their pericarp (pods) ripen to a red color, while Nosasage contains 3 to 5 seeds and its pericarp ripens to a purple color.

You should be able to easily distinguish them by checking one of them.

What is the difference between Tankirimame and Tokirimame?

While it may seem difficult to distinguish between Rhynchospora tetrandra and Rhynchospora tokiri, which belong to the same genus, you can easily tell them apart by examining their leaves.

Specifically, in Rhynchospora cylindrica, the terminal leaflet is obovate, widest above the center, with a blunt tip, thick leaves, and densely covered with soft hairs on the underside, whereas in Rhynchospora cylindrica, the terminal leaflet is ovate, widest below the center, with a slender, pointed tip, somewhat thinner leaves, and fewer hairs on the underside.

There are many factors to consider, but if you're unsure whether to choose Tankirimame or Tokirimame, a good rule of thumb is that if the leaf tips are rounded, it's Tankirimame, and if they're pointed and tail-like, it's Tokirimame.

There are also differences in the flowers: in Rhynchospora japonica, the lowest calyx lobe is longer than the calyx tube, while in Rhynchospora japonica, the calyx lobe is shorter than the calyx tube. It's difficult to confirm, but if you see the flowers, be sure to record them.

By checking these elements, you should be able to easily distinguish between them.

Are there any other similar species?

For information on how to distinguish between this and other wild climbing plants belonging to the legume family, specifically those with purple flowers, please see our separate article.

What are the differences between wild beans, wild beans, and soybeans? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Both wild soybean (Amphicarpaea rhynchophylla) and climbing soybean (Glycine soja) are annual vines belonging to the legume family. In Japan, they grow in very similar environments such as embankments, grasslands, and forest edges. Their trifoliate compound leaves are also similar in shape, which can lead to confusion. However, there are differences at the genus level, and these differences are clearly evident in the leaves, flowers, and fruits...

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References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726