Both *Lamium purpureum* and *Lamium purpureum* are herbaceous plants belonging to the genus *Lamium* in the Lamiaceae family. In horticulture, they are called "Lamium," and because *Lamium purpureum* is also known as "Lamium purpureum," they are often confused in search results. However, biologically they are completely different species, not only in the color of their corollas, but also in the shape of their leaves and flowers. They bear some resemblance to *Lamium purpureum*, but again, the shape of their leaves and calyxes are different. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the *Lamium* genus cultivated in horticulture.

What are Lamium, Lumpurea, and Yellow Lamium?

Lamium maculatum, also known as climbing dwarf dwarf grass, is a perennial plant distributed in Europe (excluding Northern Europe), western Russia, the Caucasus, Turkey, and China. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom and the United States, and in Japan, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant (RBG Kew, 2025).

Lamium galeobdolon, also known as yellow deadnettle or clover, is a perennial plant distributed in Europe, western Russia, the Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran. It was introduced to the United States and cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes and as ground cover, with some escaping and becoming naturalized (Shimizu, 2001).

All of these are herbaceous plants belonging to the genus Lamium in the Lamiaceae family.

Morphologically, they share several common features: the upper lip of the corolla is helmet-shaped with its tip curving forward; the lower lip is three-lobed and curves backward; the entire throat area is swollen; and the corolla tube protrudes from the calyx tube, making it visible from the outside.

Furthermore, among the Lamium genus, it produces creeping stems and blooms with large, pretty flowers in early spring, so you can sometimes see it being cultivated for ornamental purposes in towns and cities.

Lamium originally refers to the genus Lamium, and is a general term that includes wild species such as Lamium album, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium amplexicaule. However, in horticulture, it is usually limited to Lamium purpureum and Lamium purpureum.

In gardening, many websites present *Lamium amplexicaule* and *Lamium purpureum* as if they were simply different varieties.

Furthermore, since yellow dwarf

Those unfamiliar with these terms might get confused.

What is the difference between *Lamium amplexicaule* and *Lamium purpureum*?

However, *Lamium amplexicaule* and *Lamium purpureum* are distinct species (Spencer, 2002; Reznicek et al., 2011).

Firstly, the color of the corolla of the flowers is distinctly different: the corolla of *Lamium amplexicaule* is purple, while that of *Lamium purpureum* is yellow.

Furthermore, while the hairs on the upper part of the corolla (upper lip) are short in *Lamium amplexicaule*, they are clearly longer in *Lamium purpureum*. This can be clearly seen in photographs.

There are also differences in the leaves.

In *Lamium amplexicaule*, the leaves are wrinkled and the tips are somewhat tail-like, whereas in *Lamium purpureum*, the leaves are less wrinkled and the tips are not as elongated.

Another difference is that the anthers of *Lamium amplexicaule* are hairy and tufted, while those of *Lamium purpureum* are hairless, but few people would bother to notice this difference.

In addition, two well-known horticultural varieties of Lamium amplexicaule are 'Beacon Silver', in which the leaves are white except for the leaf margins, and 'Sterling Silver', in which the entire leaf, including the leaf margins, is white.

Among the horticultural varieties of yellow henbit, 'Harmann's Pride', which has many silvery-white variegations, is well known.

Are there any other similar species?

Many species of the Lamium genus are known to grow wild in Japan, but most have small corollas and do not resemble each other very much.

Lamium album var. barbatum has a large corolla and is somewhat similar to yellow lamium and creeping lamium, but it lacks stolons, its leaf tips are more tail-like than those of creeping lamium, and its calyx is sharper.

What are the differences between Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium album? How do they differ from Lamium album? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Why are the fruits carried by ants?

Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium purpureum are all herbaceous plants belonging to the genus Lamium in the Lamiaceae family. Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum are particularly well-known as spring weeds, but some people may have trouble distinguishing between the three species. These three species are relatively easy to identify, and their leaves alone...

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References

Spencer, R. 2002. Lamiaceae. In: R. Spencer (Ed.), Horticultural Flora of South-eastern Australia: The identification of garden and cultivated plants (Vol. 4. Flowering plants. Dicotyledons. Part 3). University of New South Wales Press, 576pp. ISBN: 9780868406848, https://hortflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/taxon/ada11ab0-5340-11e7-b82b-005056b0018f

RBG Kew. 2025. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Reznicek, AA, Voss, EG & Walters, BS 2011. Michigan Flora Online. University of Michigan. https://mifloradev.lsa.umich.edu/flora-demo/#/genus/Lamium

Shimizu, K., Morita, H., & Hirota, S. 2001. Illustrated Guide to Naturalized Plants of Japan: 600 Species of Plant Invaders (Revised). National Rural Education Association, Tokyo. 553pp. ISBN: 9784881370858

Both Glechoma hederacea and Glechoma hederacea (European Glechoma) belong to the genus Glechoma in the Lamiaceae family. Their names, meaning "through the fence," come from the way their stems creep along the ground and pass through fences. They are characterized by kidney-shaped leaves and labiate flowers with a large opening in the center. Recently, Glechoma hederacea, which is cultivated in horticulture, has been confused with Glechoma hederacea. However, they have different origins and morphological differences, such as the size of the corolla and calyx. They are also sometimes confused with Centella asiatica, Lamium amplexicaule, and Mazus pumilus, but the distinctions are relatively easy. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Glechoma hederacea.

What are Glechoma hederacea and Glechoma hederacea (European Glechoma)?

Glechoma hederacea subsp. grandis, also known as Kakidoshi (fence-piercing grass), is a perennial herb distributed in Japan from Hokkaido to Kyushu, southeastern China, and Taiwan, growing in fields and roadsides (Hayashi et al., 2013; RBG Kew, 2025). In China and the UK, its scientific name is Glechoma grandis.

Glechoma hederacea subsp. hederacea, commonly known as European ground ivy (Glechoma), is a perennial herb distributed in Europe, Russia, and Xinjiang, China, and has been introduced worldwide. It grows in valley meadows. In Japan, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant. In China and the UK, its scientific name is Glechoma hederacea.

Both belong to the genus Glechoma in the Lamiaceae family, and their name, "Kakidoshi" (meaning "through the fence"), comes from the way their stems creep along the ground and pass through hedges.

In addition to these features, its kidney-shaped flowers with blunt serrations, the distinctive lip-shaped flowers characteristic of the mint family with a gaping center, a large, protruding lower lip, and white hairs growing on the central side are also unique.

Many people are unaware that the true Glechoma hederacea and the "Glechoma hederacea" cultivated and sold in horticulture under the genus name Glechoma are different subspecies or even different species. The "Glechoma hederacea" currently cultivated in Japan is not a native species.

However, there doesn't seem to be any Japanese website that properly explains how to distinguish between them.

What is the difference between Glechoma hederacea and Glechoma hederacea (European Glechoma hederacea)?

Glechoma hederacea and Glechoma hederacea have different characteristics and are sometimes considered separate species overseas (Wu & Raven, 1994).

As a fundamental point, while Glechoma hederacea grows wild in Japan, Glechoma hederacea does not grow wild, and there is no evidence of it becoming naturalized; it is only cultivated.

Morphologically, one key difference is that the leaves of Glechoma hederacea are hairy, while those of Glechoma hederacea are hairless.

However, upon actually examining the images, the author found that European ground ivy also has hairs. It's just that European ground ivy has a glossier appearance and lacks the noticeable white hairs of common ground ivy, but that's about the only difference, and it's not entirely clear.

Furthermore, regarding the calyx of the flower, there is a difference in that the sepals of Glechoma hederacea are approximately 7-10 mm long, while those of Glechoma hederacea are 5-7 mm long.

Regarding the corolla of the flowers, there is a difference in size: in Glechoma hederacea, the corolla is large, measuring about 3 cm in length, while in Glechoma hederacea var. japonica, it is small, measuring about 1 cm in length.

Therefore, you will likely get the impression that the flowers of Glechoma hederacea are clearly larger and more conspicuous than those of Glechoma hederacea var. japonica. This is a more obvious difference.

Most variegated seedlings sold in garden centers appear to be European ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea subsp. grandis f. albovariegata). However, there are also variegated varieties of Japanese ground ivy, which are called variegated ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea subsp. grandis f. albovariegata). Those with white flowers are white ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea f. alboflorens).

What are the differences between Glechoma hederacea, Centella asiatica, Lamium amplexicaule, and Mazus pumilus?

The differences between Glechoma hederacea (Kakidōshi) and Lamium amplexicaule (Lamiaceae) , Mazus miquelii (Sudareaceae), and Centella asiatica (Apiaceae) are frequently searched for.

This is likely because *Lamium amplexicaule* and *Centella asiatica* are similar to *Glechoma hederacea* in that they have kidney-shaped leaves, while *Mazus pumilus* is similar to *Glechoma hederacea* in that its flowers are somewhat similar.

However, in terms of classification, they are quite different.

Unlike Glechoma hederacea, Lamium amplexicaule has short petioles on its upper leaves, and its flowers are small and tubular.

What are the differences between Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium album? How do they differ from Lamium album? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! Why are the fruits carried by ants?

Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium purpureum are all herbaceous plants belonging to the genus Lamium in the Lamiaceae family. Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum are particularly well-known as spring weeds, but some people may have trouble distinguishing between the three species. These three species are relatively easy to identify, and their leaves alone...

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Unlike Glechoma hederacea, the lower lip (the lower part of the flower) of the labiate flower of Mazus pumilus is not divided into two but is a single lobe. The leaves are obovate or circular.

Unlike Glechoma hederacea, Centella asiatica has a four-angled stem, coarse short hairs only on the ridges, and lacks glandular dots on the underside of the leaf blade. Its flowers are very small and inconspicuous.

References

Hayashi, Yasaka, Kadota, Yuichi, and Hirano, Takahisa. 2013. Yamakei Handy Illustrated Guide 1: Wildflowers (Revised and Expanded New Edition). Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 664pp. ISBN: 9784635070195

RBG Kew. 2025. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Wu, ZY, & Raven, PH (Eds.). 1994. Flora of China (Vol. 17 Verbenaceae through Solanaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. 342pp. ISBN: 9780915279241

Catmint and catnip belong to the genus Nepeta in the Lamiaceae family and are perennial plants widely cultivated in Japan as herbs or for ornamental purposes. While their large corollas with protruding upper lips are distinctive, they are perhaps best known for causing the "matatabi reaction," a state of intoxication in felines. However, due to a lack of Japanese-language resources, few people seem to correctly understand the difference between catmint and catnip. The two species can be distinguished primarily by examining their leaves and flowers. Furthermore, the variety known as blue catmint is a separate species distinct from both of these. It is also a different species from mint. Regarding the effect of catmint on felines, it has been suggested that the felines, rather than the catmint itself, may be using the leaves as a mosquito repellent. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and ecology of the genus Nepeta.

What is catmint (catnip)?

Catmint (Nepeta x faassenii) is a perennial hybrid created by artificial crossbreeding Nepeta nepetella and Nepeta racemosa in cultivated areas. 'Walker's Low' is a representative variety.

Nepeta cataria, also known as catnip, Chikuma mint, or Western silver vine, is a synonym (former scientific name) of Nepeta cataria, but is sometimes mistakenly identified as the scientific name for catmint. It is a perennial plant widely distributed across the Eurasian continent, and it is believed that it escaped cultivation in Japan after being introduced for medicinal purposes (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Both belong to the genus Mentha catkins in the Lamiaceae family, and are perennial plants that are widely cultivated in Japan as herbs or for ornamental purposes.

It can be distinguished from other Lamiaceae species by its four fully formed stamens, large corolla with a protruding upper lip, terminal inflorescence with numerous flowers arranged in a whorl, and erect stem.

However, for the average person, the more important characteristic might be that it induces the "catnip reaction," similar to Actinidia polygama (silver vine), which intoxicates cats. This is the origin of the names catmint and cap nip.

Based on these characteristics, it could be said that catmint is a relatively well-known herb within the mint family, but it's fair to say that catmint and catnip are extremely often confused.

This is partly due to the fact that the range of things referred to differs between English and Japanese.

In Japanese, "catmint" refers to one species with the scientific name Nepeta x faassenii, whereas in English, "catmint" includes both Nepeta x faassenii and Nepeta catkins.

The lack of websites that explain the specific differences in appearance is likely contributing to the confusion.

What is the difference between catmint and catnip?

Here, we will assume that "catmint" refers to one species and will explain the difference between it and catnip (Nepeta catica) (Spencer et al., 2002).

The first difference is the leaves: catmint leaves are about 3 cm long, while catnip leaves are longer than 3 cm.

Regarding the flowers, catmint has long corollas up to 12 mm in length, pale lavender with dark spots, and calyxes that are usually green and protrude sharply, while catnip has shorter corollas of 7-10 cm in length, is white to pale purple with purple spots, and calyxes that are usually purple and protrude bluntly.

Because the lengths of the corollas vary considerably, the appearance of the inflorescences is quite different, and catnip flowers appear to be densely clustered together.

It should be noted that catmint is often confused with Persian catmint (Nepeta racemosa), also known as "blue catmint" in Japanese horticulture.

However, blue catmint is a different plant, being one of the original species of catmint.

Specifically, the difference is that catmint has leaves that are narrowly oblong to narrowly lanceolate with no or slightly heart-shaped base, while blue catmint has ovate leaves with a clearly heart-shaped base.

What is the difference between catmint and mint?

Some people might be wondering about the difference between catmint and mint.

Mint is usually a general term for the genus Mentha.

Although they are closely related in terms of classification and are both herbs, catmint differs in that, as plants, it has large flowers with a protruding corolla tip, while mint (Mentha genus) has small flowers with a less pronounced corolla tip.

Why does catnip make cats intoxicated? It's actually an adaptation on the cat's part!?

Catnip, which includes the genus Nepeta, is known to affect about two-thirds of domestic cats (Felis catus) and many wild felines, including lions (Panthera leo), tigers (Panthera tigris), and ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), inducing playful behaviors (the catnip response) such as rolling around, rubbing their cheeks, and pecking with their paws.

This behavior is so cute that some people might even go to the trouble of buying catnip or cat mint to give to their cats.

The substance responsible is believed to be nepetalactone, a type of iridoid and a volatile metabolite thought to mimic feline pheromones (Lichman et al., 2020).

Why did this nepetalactone evolve? Was there any benefit to catmint attracting cats?

At least in the case of the Nepeta genus, this is not the case; it is thought that they evolved to protect themselves from herbivorous insects that eat their own bodies.

Iridoids like nepetalactone were originally widely synthesized in the Lamiaceae family. In the ancestors of the Nepetoideae subfamily (which includes common herbs and mints), monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes replaced iridoids, causing them to lose the ability to synthesize iridoids. However, the ancestors of the Mentha catkins reverted to synthesizing nepetalactone once again.

Therefore, the history of synthesizing iridoids like nepetalactone is actually quite old, dating back to the entire Lamiaceae family.

So why did cats become intoxicated by catmint?

In this regard, an interesting hypothesis has recently been published by Japanese researchers (Uenoyama et al., 2021).

The reason why felines become intoxicated by the leaves of catnip and catnip is that by rubbing the leaves on their bodies, the nepetalactol from catnip and nepetalactone from catnip move to their faces and heads, which prevents them from being bitten by mosquitoes such as Asian tiger mosquitoes.

This experiment shows that domestic cats that have been rubbed with catnip are less likely to be bitten by mosquitoes.

Until now, it had been interpreted as merely a coincidence that feline pheromones matched insect-repellent substances found in catnip and catnip, but this new perspective suggests that there was a clear adaptive reason for this.

However, in my opinion, to what extent were felines and plants of the catnip and catnip genera actually likely to encounter each other in the natural world? And why does this only happen with these two groups of plants? These points remain unclear, and further investigation into these aspects will likely reveal a fascinating world of interspecies interactions.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Lichman, BR, Godden, GT, Hamilton, JP, Palmer, L., Kamileen, MO, Zhao, D., … & O'Connor, SE 2020. The evolutionary origins of the cat attractant nepetalactone in catnip. Science Advances 6(20): eaba0721. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba0721

Spencer, R., Holmes, R., McNaughton, V. 2002. Nepeta. In: R. Spencer (Ed.), Horticultural Flora of South-eastern Australia: The identification of garden and cultivated plants (Vol. 4. Flowering plants. Dicotyledons. Part 3). University of New South Wales Press, 576pp. ISBN: 9780868406848, https://hortflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/taxon/ada142f6-5340-11e7-b82b-005056b0018f/key

Uenoyama, R., Miyazaki, T., Hurst, JL, Beynon, RJ, Adachi, M., Murooka, T., … & Miyazaki, M. 2021. The characteristic response of domestic cats to plant iridoids allows them to gain chemical defense against mosquitoes. Science Advances 7(4): eabd9135. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd9135

Are any of you playing VALORANT, the FPS game developed and operated by Riot Games? I've recently started playing it little by little after a friend invited me.

I've had trouble memorizing all the proper nouns that appear in the game. I usually look up the origin and etymology of new proper nouns and try to make connections to them, but there don't seem to be many websites that provide detailed summaries of VALORANT's character, weapon, and stage names.

Therefore, I created a list of origins and etymologies by researching the origins based on ChatGPT and supplementing it with information from the " Online Etymology Dictionary " and " Wiktionary." Since it's based on ChatGPT, there might be some inaccuracies, but since there doesn't seem to be much clear explanation from the official sources, I think it will be useful as a reference.

While you'll naturally learn things as you play, knowing the world setting, source material, and English vocabulary can be very educational, so please feel free to use this as a reference. As the saying goes, "a name reflects the character," and it also helps in understanding the character's concept.

By the way, PIE is an abbreviation for Proto-Indo-European, which is the original language from which European and Indian languages originated. The etymology section is basically for language enthusiasts. I've also included links so you can learn more.

This article summarizes the origins of the character (agent) names. For the origins of abilities, weapons, and stages, please see separate articles.

List of meanings and origins of VALORANT character (agent) ability names

Are any of you playing VALORANT, the FPS game developed and operated by Riot Games? I recently started playing it little by little after a friend invited me. There are a lot of proper nouns in the game, and I've been having trouble remembering them all. I usually don't remember new proper nouns...

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List of the origins of VALORANT weapon (gun) names

Are any of you playing VALORANT, the FPS game developed and operated by Riot Games? I recently started playing it little by little after a friend invited me. There are a lot of proper nouns in the game, and I've been having trouble remembering them all. I usually don't remember new proper nouns...

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List of origins for VALORANT stage names

Are any of you playing VALORANT, the FPS game developed and operated by Riot Games? I recently started playing it little by little after a friend invited me. There are a lot of proper nouns in the game, and I've been having trouble remembering them all. I usually don't remember new proper nouns...

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The origin of the names of the duelist characters (agents)

" Duel " means "a duel," and refers to a character specializing in one-on-one combat. Duelists are responsible for defeating enemies with an aggressive style and generally excel at fighting on the front lines. With high killing ability and mobility, a duelist's job is to actively confront enemies and lead the battle.

1. Jett
   • Features: Characterized by high-speed movement and aerial maneuverability.
   • Origin: It comes from " jet," and is related to the speed of jet engines and aerial flight.
   • Etymology: PIE *yē- "to throw, to propel".
2. Raze
   • Characteristics: Flashy attacks using explosives.
   • Origin: Derived from " raze " (to destroy), reflecting her explosive attack power.
   • Etymology: PIE *rēd- "to rub, scratch, gnaw".
3. Phoenix
   • Features: Can control fire and revive itself.
   • Origin: Derived from " phoenix," reflecting the power of fire and resurrection.
   • Etymology: It is thought to be derived from the ancient Egyptian word bnw, "Bennu, a god created by himself in Egyptian mythology, in the form of a bird (heron in New Kingdom art)." However, the exact origin is unclear.
4. Reyna
   • Features: Gets stronger by defeating enemies.
   • Origin: It comes from the Spanish word " reyna " (queen), signifying her ruthlessness and dominance.
   • Etymology: PIE *reg- "to move straight".
5. Yoru
   • Features: Invisibility and teleportation.
   • Origin: Derived from the Japanese word for "night," it symbolizes a fighting style that blends into the darkness.
6. Neon
   • Features: High-speed movement using electricity.
   • Origin: Derived from the gas " neon," associated with speed and electrical energy.
   • Etymology: Derived from the Greek word neos, meaning "new." This comes from its discovery as a new element. neos is derived from PIE *newo-, meaning "new." It shares the same etymology as the English word "new."
7. Iso
   • Characteristics: Excels at acting independently.
   • Origin: Derived from " isolation," it represents a trait that makes one strong when fighting alone.
   • Etymology: Derived from the Latin word insula, meaning "island." It is cognate with the English word " isle." The etymology of insula is unknown, but one theory suggests it is derived from PIE *sal-, meaning "salt." In this case, the English word salt is also cognate.
8. Waylay
   • Features: Can move instantly, disrupt enemy actions, and retreat while invincible.
   • Origin: Derived from " waylay " (to ambush), it represents the ability to ambush and fight even when aggressively pushing and entering a position. However, in practice, it is also seen being used to initiate attacks oneself.
   • Etymology: Originally used to mean "to lie in ambush on the road, to block the way," it is a combination of "way" (noun: road) and "lay" (verb: to lie down), likely influenced by Middle Low German or Middle Dutch "wegelagen" ("to block the way, to lie in ambush on a public road with malice or hostility"). This expression is somewhat unique, as it expresses a concept that cannot be derived by considering "way" and "lay" in their individual meanings, and its aggressive nuance may have arisen from confusion with "lay wait" or "lie in wait."

The origin of the names of the Sentinel characters (agents)

" Sentinel " means "watchman" or "observer." This is a fitting name for a character that emphasizes defense and resilience. Sentinels are responsible for protecting specific areas of the map. Their main role is to support allies while using defensive abilities to stop enemy advances.

1. Sage
   • Features: Heals and supports allies.
   • Origin: It means " sage " (a member of the mint family, Salvia genus, used as a medicinal herb), and is associated with healing and protective powers. It also means " sage " (wise person), which may be related to the biblical words spoken by sage.
   • Etymology: The word "sage," meaning medicinal herb, is derived from the Latin word "salvia." "Salvia" is derived from the Latin word "salvus," meaning "healthy," which in turn is derived from the PIE *sol- meaning "whole, well-preserved." The word "sage," meaning wise person, is ultimately derived from the PIE *sap- meaning "to taste." At the Latin "sapere" stage, the meaning changed to "tasty, good-tasting, wise." It is cognate with the English word " sap," meaning "tree sap."
2. Cypher
   • Features: Information gathering and surveillance.
   • Origin: It means " cipher," indicating his espionage role.
   • Etymology: Derived from the Arabic word safara, meaning "empty." Originally meaning "empty," it came to mean "zero (0)," and then further evolved to mean "any number" → "secret number" → "secret letter."
3. Killjoy
   • Features: Trap placement using robots.
   • Origin: Derived from " killjoy " (someone who ruins the fun, a spoiler), and is associated with the ability to restrict the enemy's movements.
4. Chamber
   • Features: Uses sniper rifles and traps.
   • Origin: Refers to the " chamber " of a gun (the chamber in the barrel of a firearm or the magazine of a revolver where loaded ammunition is held), and is related to his use of weapons.
   • Etymology: Derived from PIE *kh₂em- "to bend, curve, or smooth." Cognate with the English word " camera." The meaning evolved from "arched roof or ceiling" to "room," and from there to "conference room" and "pharmacy."
5. Deadlock
   • Features: It immobilizes the enemy.
   • Origin: Derived from " deadlock," it relates to the ability to disrupt the enemy's actions.
6. Vyse
   • Features: The power to restrain enemies.
   • Origin: It refers to " vise " (a type of clamp, to hold down with a vise, to tighten), and describes a tactic of tightening the grip on the enemy. The spelling "vyse" is known as a Middle English variant of " vice " (bad habit, vice), so this may also be related.
   • Etymology: vise originates from the Latin word vītis, "grape, grapevine," and is derived from the PIE *wei-, "to turn, twist, bend." Vitis is famous as the scientific name for the grape genus. vice is derived from the Latin word vitium, "bad," and there is a theory that this is further derived from the PIE *(d)wi-tyo-, "away, bad." Since *(d)wi-tyo- is derived from the PIE *dwóh₁ or *dwo-, "two," in this case it is cognate with the English word two.
7. Vito
   • Features: Specializes in disabling or destroying abilities (skills).
   • Origin: Meaning " veto," it reflects the ability to deny enemy abilities.
   • Etymology: Derived from the Latin word veto, meaning "to forbid or refuse quotation," and from the PIE *weth₂- meaning "to say."

The origin of the names of the Initiator characters (agents)

An " Initiator " is a character whose role is to initiate combat. They break down enemy defenses and support the entire team's attack. They take the lead in battle, causing confusion among the enemy and creating advantageous situations when entering an area.

1. Bleach
   • Features: Attacks that penetrate walls.
   • Origin: Meaning " breach," it symbolizes the power to overcome obstacles and attack the enemy.
   • Etymology: PIE *bhreg- "to break". Cognate with words like " break ".
2. Sova
   • Features: Uses a bow to scout for enemies.
   • Origin: It comes from the Russian word "sova" (owl), reflecting the ability to spot enemies.
   • Etymology: It originates from the Proto-Slavic word *sova, but its origin is unknown.
3. Skye
   • Features: Uses animals for scouting and healing.
   • Origin: It means " sky," and since it involves scouting, it may have the nuance of "covering" the entire game. It is also thought to be related to the ability to manipulate the power of nature (birds).
   • Etymology: PIE *(s)keu- "to cover up". "skye" is an older spelling.
4. KAY/O
   • Features: Disables enemy abilities.
   • Origin: A play on the word "KO (knock out)," symbolizing the power to neutralize the enemy.
   • Etymology: The word "knock" comes from the PIE *gnew-, *gen- meaning "to squeeze, pinch, twist, roll, concentrate".
5. Fade
   • Features: Manipulate fear and track down enemies.
   • Origin: Derived from " fade," reflecting a style of silently cornering the enemy.
   • Etymology: The word originates from the Latin word fatuus, which is sometimes further thought to be derived from the PIE *bʰeh₂- or *bhā- "to speak," but the exact origin is unknown.
6. Gekko
   • Features: Attacks and support using small animals.
   • Origin: Derived from " gekko " (gecko), and associated with the power to control small creatures.
   • Etymology: It is believed to originate from Malay, but the exact origin is not well understood.
7. Teho (Tejo)
   • Features: Can not only scout but also stun, suppress, and attack.
   • Origin: Derived from the Spanish word " tejo," it is a traditional Colombian throwing sport. A metal puck or discus filled with gunpowder is thrown at a small target, which explodes upon impact. It is associated with explosive skills.
   • Etymology: The masculine form of teja, meaning "tile." Derived from Vulgar Latin *tegla, which in turn derives from Latin tēgula, and from PIE *tegdʰleh₂. Cognate with the English word "tile."

The origin of the controller character (agent)'s name

A " Controller " is someone who controls specific areas on the map or the movement of enemies. Controllers use skills such as smoke and area control to restrict enemy vision and movement. They specialize in limiting the enemy's range of action and creating an environment advantageous to their team. In particular, they use smoke and other means to obstruct vision and keep enemies at bay.

1. The Omen
   • Features: Teleports using shadows.
   • Origin: Derived from " omen," it represents a mysterious presence.
   • Etymology: It originates from the Latin word omen, but there are various theories about its further origin, and it is not well understood.
2. Brimstone
   • Features: Deploys airstrikes and smoke.
   • Origin: The name comes from the English word " brimstone " (sulfur), and is related to his aggressive bombing capabilities. However, this is closer to an archaic word, and sulfur is now commonly referred to as sulfur. It is an ingredient in gunpowder, and the Romans used sulfur in the manufacture of fireworks and weapons. It may also be related to the fact that volcanic gases contain hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. In the Bible, "brimstone" also means "sulfur of hell, hell, divine punishment," and his remarks during the orbital strike may be a reference to this.
   • Etymology: A compound word of brin- (derived from Proto-Germanic *brennan "to burn" and PIE *gwher- "to heat, to warm") and stan (English: stone).
3. Viper
   • Characteristics: Can manipulate toxic gases.
   • Origin: Derived from " viper " (poisonous snake), it is associated with the power of attacks using poison.
   • Etymology: A shortened form of the Latin *vivipera, derived from the compound word vivus "to live" (PIE *gwei- "to live") and parire "to give birth, to produce" (PIE *pere- (1) "to give birth, to produce"). This is because members of the Viperidae family, including the venomous pit viper, are ovoviviparous.
4. Astra
   • Features: Skills that utilize the power of the universe.
   • Origin: It means " astra " (star) in Latin, and it refers to the manipulation of cosmic forces.
   • Etymology: PIE *ster- "star". Cognate with the English word "star".
5. Harbor
   • Characteristics: The ability to manipulate water.
   • Origin: It comes from the English word " harbor," and is related to the control capabilities that utilize water.
   • Etymology: Derived from the Proto-Germanic *harja-bergaz "protection, lodging," and a compound word of *heri "army, group" (cognate with English harry) and *burzjan- "protection, shelter" (PIE *bhergh- (1) "to hide, to protect").
6. Clove
   • Features: A skill that allows you to revive with the power of immortality.
   • Origin: It comes from the plant " clove," which is difficult to interpret, but since cloves have antiseptic and analgesic properties and are often used to prevent and treat infections, it may be associated with the themes of "immortality" and "longevity."
   • Etymology: Derived from the Latin word clavus, meaning "nail." Cloves are picked just before the buds open, dried in the shade, and used as a spice, and the shape of the buds resembles a nail. Clavus comes from the PIE words *klau-, *kleu-, klēu-, meaning "hook, winding branch."

Muscari, grape muscari, and blue muscari are all perennial plants belonging to the genus Muscari in the family Asparagaceae (formerly Asparagaceae). In early spring, from March to April, they produce numerous blue, urn-shaped flowers that hang downwards in racemes, and their cuteness makes them very popular as ornamental plants in gardens. However, in Japan, there are few proper descriptions of how to distinguish between different species of Muscari, which seems to cause confusion. A botanical guide from the United States describes how to distinguish them, and according to it, they can be distinguished by checking the number of flowers per inflorescence and the color of the flowers. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Muscari.

What are Muscari, Grape Muscari, and Blue Muscari?

Muscari neglectum, also known as grape hyacinth, is a perennial plant distributed along the Mediterranean coast of Europe, North Africa, West Asia, and the Caucasus, growing in roadsides, fields, forests, and abandoned gardens. It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes, including in Japan, and has become naturalized in places like the UK and North America.

Grape muscari (Muscari armeniacum), also known as large grape muscari, muscari armeniacum, or muscari armeniacum, is a perennial plant distributed in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, the Caucasus, and Turkey. It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes, including in Japan, and has become naturalized in Western Europe and North America.

Muscari botryoides, also known as blue muscari, is a perennial plant distributed throughout Europe, from France to Ukraine, growing in roadsides, fields, forests, and abandoned gardens. It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes, including in Japan, and has become naturalized in places like the UK and North America.

All of these are perennial plants belonging to the Muscari genus of the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family). In early spring, from March to April, they produce numerous blue, urn-shaped flowers that hang downwards in racemes. Perhaps because of their cute appearance, they are very popular as ornamental plants in gardens. It would not be an exaggeration to say that you are bound to see them in gardens and other places when walking around town.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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However, when it comes to muscari species, there are few resources in Japan that properly describe how to distinguish between different types, and even when searching for overseas photos using Google Image Search, many of them are incorrect. The Japanese Wikipedia also seems to contain errors. There is little accurate information available on how to distinguish between muscari species, which may be causing many people trouble.

What are the differences between Muscari, Grape Muscari, and Blue Muscari?

The American botanical guide notes that there are relatively clear differences between these three species (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2002).

First, regarding the flowers that grow in racemes, there is a difference between Muscari and Grape Muscari, which have 20 to 40 flowers, and Blue Muscari, which has 12 to 20 flowers.

In short, Muscari and grape muscari have more flowers. This is also the origin of the name "grape muscari," likely because the inflorescence resembles a bunch of grapes.

Furthermore, there is a difference in the leaves: while Muscari and grape Muscari have leaves that are 2-4 mm wide, blue Muscari has leaves that are 3-8 mm wide. In short, blue Muscari generally has slightly thicker leaves.

While distinguishing between Muscari species is relatively easy, the differences between Muscari and Muscari rupestris are said to be minimal, mainly just the color of the corolla.

Specifically, while the corolla of Muscari is a dark blue, that of Grape Muscari is a beautiful blue to sky blue. In horticultural varieties, Grape Muscari can also be white.

Because the main difference is color, distinguishing them using dried specimens is considered difficult.

In Japan, I rarely see true "muscari," and I believe that most of them are either grape muscari or blue muscari.

Are there any other similar varieties? What's the difference between this and lavender?

While many other species of the Muscari genus are known, they are rare in Japan, so I will omit them.

The species known as "feathered muscari" (Muscari comosum), also called Muscari comosum, has very long flower stalks at the top of its inflorescence, resembling the "feathers" used in the Japanese game of battledore and shuttlecock, and is rarely confused with the three species mentioned above.

Google searches often include questions about the difference between lavender and muscari. While it's true that lavender, like muscari, produces blue inflorescences, it belongs to the mint family, has hairy and fragrant leaves, and its corollas face upwards. These differences make it difficult to find common ground. Please compare it to the photos in the other article.

What are the differences between English lavender, French lavender, and Dentata lavender? How to distinguish between similar varieties! What are the effects of their essential oils? Why are there buds mixed in with the flowers? Were the seeds dispersed by sheep?!

Lavender is extremely popular in gardening, known for its purple flowers and renowned for its medicinal properties. However, few articles properly explain the differences between various types of lavender. The visual differences in lavender are not simply variations in "cultivar," but rather entirely different species. Here are three representative types...

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References

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2002. Flora of North America (Vol. 26 Liliidae). Oxford University Press, ‎Oxford. 752pp. ISBN: 9780195152081

Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium purpureum are all herbaceous plants belonging to the genus Lamium in the Lamiaceae family. Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum are particularly well-known as spring weeds, but some people may have trouble distinguishing between the three species. These three species are relatively easy to distinguish, and can be identified by their leaves or flowers alone. However, a species called Lamium purpureum has recently been confirmed, so be sure to look carefully when searching for it. The fruits have elaiosomes and are dispersed by ants, and recent research has shown that ants employ various strategies to spread their distribution. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and ecology of the genus Lamium.

What are Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium album?

Lamium amplexicaule, also known as Hotokenoza (Buddha's Seat), is a biennial herb commonly found growing along roadsides, in vacant lots, and in fields in warm regions of the world, including Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan. White-flowered Hotokenoza f. albiflorum is a variety with white flowers.

Lamium purpureum, also known as Himeoodorikosou, is native to Europe and Asia Minor, and has naturalized in East Asia and North America. In Japan, it has naturalized in Hokkaido and Honshu, and is a common biennial plant that grows along roadsides, vacant lots, and fields in alluvial plains, hills, plateaus, and mountains.

Lamium album var. barbatum, also known as "Odorikosou" (dancing girl's grass), is a perennial herb widely distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in East Asia. It grows in slightly shaded grasslands, forest edges, and roadsides in alluvial plains and mountainous areas. Another variety, Lamium album var. tairiku, has white corollas and is also found in Europe.

Both are herbaceous plants belonging to the genus Lamium in the Lamiaceae family. In Japan, Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum are particularly common on roadsides and often grow together. They are what are commonly called "weeds." Many people may know their names as they are the most frequently featured species in children's plant encyclopedias. They can be seen blooming all at once in spring, from March to April. However, they can also be seen blooming in winter in sunny locations.

Morphologically, they share several common features: the upper lip of the corolla is helmet-shaped with its tip curving forward; the lower lip is three-lobed and curves backward; the entire throat area is swollen; and the corolla tube protrudes from the calyx tube, making it visible from the outside.

However, many people may not know how to distinguish between these plants or the origin of the name "Hime-odorikosou" (small lamium purpureum), which comes from "Odorikosou" (lamium purpureum).

What are the differences between Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium purpureum, and Lamium album?

The three species can be distinguished relatively easily (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, there is a difference in that the corollas of Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum are small, less than 20 mm in length, while those of Lamium purpureum are considerably larger, measuring 2.5 to 3 cm in length.

Another difference is that while the leaf tips of Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum are rounded, the leaf tips of Lamium purpureum are pointed and tail-like.

These two points make it easy to distinguish between Lamium album and other species. Lamium album is quite rare in urban areas.

Regarding Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum, the main difference is that Lamium amplexicaule has kidney-shaped leaves with no petioles above the middle of the stem, and the corolla is 15-20 mm long, while Lamium purpureum has triangular-ovate leaves with petioles, and the corolla is somewhat smaller, about 10 mm long.

The name "Hotokenoza" is derived from the lotus throne (a lotus flower) on which Buddha sits in Buddhism. While it doesn't really resemble a lotus flower, the way its kidney-shaped leaves, which look comfortable to sit on, are arranged opposite each other and overlap in layers like a five-story pagoda has a certain Buddhist feel to it. Lamium amplexicaule also has opposite leaves, but the spaces between the leaves are short and dense, so its appearance is quite different from Hotokenoza.

Additionally, the corolla of Lamium amplexicaule is darker in color, closer to purple, while that of Lamium purpureum is closer to pink.

Furthermore, Lamium amplexicaule has flowers called "cleistogamous flowers" that do not open and self-pollinate using their own stamens and pistils, and many purple buds can be seen, whereas Lamium purpureum has no buds other than the normal kind.

The above should allow you to distinguish them.

Incidentally, "Hotokenoza," one of the seven spring herbs, is another name for Lapsanastrum apogonoides, a completely different-looking plant belonging to the Asteraceae family.

What is the difference between Lamium amplexicaule and Lamium purpureum?

Although not widely known, there is another species closely related to Lamium purpureum called Lamium dissectum. Like Lamium purpureum, Lamium dissectum is also a naturalized species originally from Europe.

These are even more similar species, but there is a difference: Lamium amplexicaule has rounded serrations on its leaves, while Lamium purpureum has shallowly lobed, deep, and irregular serrations on its leaves.

Furthermore, while the leaves at the top of the stem of Lamium amplexicaule often have a reddish tint, this is not the case with Lamium purpureum.

While not yet very common in Japan, you might discover it if you observe carefully without assuming it's Lamium amplexicaule.

Are there any other similar species?

The genus Lamium includes many species, and in horticulture, foreign species such as climbing Lamium and yellow Lamium are cultivated.

However, they can be easily distinguished because they all have large corollas and creeping stems.

What are the differences between Lamium, Lamium amplexicaule, and Lamium purpureum? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species!

Both *Lamium purpureum* and *Lamium purpureum* are herbaceous plants belonging to the genus *Lamium* in the Lamiaceae family. In horticulture, they are called "Lamium," and because *Lamium purpureum* is also known as "Lamium purpureum," they are often confused in search results. However, biologically, they are all...

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What is the structure of the fruit?

The Lamium genus commonly produces nutlets that are divided into four parts. In other words, what was once a single fruit separates into four parts, after which nutlets are formed, and each nutlet contains one seed.

The nutlets of Lamium amplexicaule are 2-2.2 mm long and 0.9-1.1 mm wide, long and obovate, with a slightly convex dorsal surface and two flat, roof-like ventral surfaces with prominent ridges. The surface is covered with irregular whitish projections, is grayish-brown in color, and has an elaiosome at the base.

The nutlets of Lamium amplexicaule are approximately 2.3 mm long and 1.3 mm wide, with three ridges. The head is nearly flat and smooth, olive-green to brownish-gray, often with white spots, and has a large elaiosome at the base.

What are the seed dispersal methods?

Elaiosomes are packed with nutrients, and plants that contain them primarily rely on ant dispersal. In other words, plants expand their distribution area by having ants carry the nutrient-rich elaiosomes back to their nests (Fujii et al., 2012). After carrying the nutrient-rich elaiosomes, the ants cut off only the elaiosomes and discard the fruit and seeds, allowing the seeds to germinate successfully.

It is known that at least one species of ant, Tetramorium tsushimae, carries the seeds of Lamium amplexicaule. Since Tetramorium tsushimae is an extremely common and dominant ant species in urban areas, it is easy to understand why Lamium amplexicaule is also found in urban areas, following its lead.

One advantage of ant dispersal over gravity dispersal and wind dispersal is that it protects seeds from insects that suck the sap and eat the seeds, such as stink bugs. This advantage was long considered a hypothesis, but recent research has demonstrated that this effect is at least present in Lamium amplexicaule (Tanaka et al., 2015).

Another interesting finding is that while Lamium amplexicaule produces both open flowers that are cross-pollinated by insects and cleistogamous flowers that are self-pollinating, it has been found that the elaiosomes attached to the seeds produced from the open flowers are heavier, meaning they are more heavily nourished (Teranishi et al., 2004).

Self-pollinating seeds have low genetic diversity and can only survive in environments similar to their parents'. Therefore, it is thought that having fewer elaiosomes is actually advantageous. On the other hand, cross-pollinating seeds have high genetic diversity, allowing them to survive in environments far from their parents and spread their offspring over a wider area. This is thought to be the reason why the amount of elaiosomes differs between open flowers and cleistogamous flowers.

References

Fujii, M., Kosaka, A., & Masui, K. 2012. Plants that rely on ants to disperse their seeds. Kyosei no Hiroba 7: 63-68. ISSN: 1881-2147, https://www.hitohaku.jp/publication/book/kyousei7_063.pdf

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Tanaka, K., Ogata, K., Mukai, H., Yamawo, A., & Tokuda, M. 2015. Adaptive advantage of myrmecochory in the ant-dispersed herb Lamium amplexicaule (Lamiaceae): Predation avoidance through the deterrence of post-dispersal seed predators. PloS One 10(7): e0133677. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133677

Teranishi, M., Fujiwara, N., Shirakami, M., Hojo, K., Yamaoka, R., Suzuki, N., & Yumoto, T. 2004. Surface components of Lamium amplexicaule seeds that simultaneously produce open and closed flowers and seed dispersal behavior by ants. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of Japan 51: 482. https://doi.org/10.14848/esj.ESJ51.0.482.0

Shiso, egoma, and lemon egoma are all annual plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family, genus Perilla, and possess a distinctive smell and taste. Shiso and egoma, in particular, have been cultivated since ancient times and are now used mainly in pickled plums and dressings, making them extremely familiar plants to Japanese people. However, shiso and egoma easily hybridize, and there are many intermediate individuals, making it difficult to distinguish between them. The name "lemon egoma" is also easily confused with egoma. However, by paying attention to their habitat, the condition of the hairs on the stem, and the shape of the bracts, it is possible to distinguish between shiso, egoma, and lemon egoma. The biggest difference between shiso and egoma is the difference in their chemical composition, and they also differ in the condition of their leaves and the size of their fruits. However, depending on the individual plant, clear distinction may be difficult. Due to the difference in their chemical composition, shiso leaves are eaten directly, while egoma has been used in Japan as "egoma oil (shiso oil)." This article will explain the classification and uses of the Perilla genus.

What are shiso, egoma, and lemon egoma?

Shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa) is an annual plant native to south-central China and Japan (RBG Kew, 2023). In Japan, seeds have been found in Jomon period archaeological sites, and it is mentioned in Heian period documents, indicating its use since ancient times (Murakami, 2023). Cultivated for food frequently escapes cultivation and has naturalized in semi-shaded areas such as roadsides and forest edges in the vicinity of farmland, foothills, and hills (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). The leaves of the green shiso are sold under the name "ooba" (大葉).

Perilla frutescens var. frutescens, also known as egoma (perilla), is an annual plant distributed in the Himalayas, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia, and is believed to be native to Southeast Asia. In Japan, seeds have been found in Jomon period ruins, and it is also mentioned in wooden tablets from the Asuka period, indicating that it has been used since ancient times (Murakami, 2021). Cultivated for food, it has escaped cultivation and is found along forest roads and farm roads at the foot of mountains and hills (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Lemon perilla (Perilla citriodora) is an annual plant distributed in Honshu (Pacific coast west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, growing in the forest edges from the upper part of the Castanopsis and Quercus zone to the lower part of the Beech zone (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Both belong to the Lamiaceae family, genus Perilla, and are annual plants with a distinctive smell and taste.

From a taxonomic standpoint, it is important to note that the calyx is lip-shaped with the upper lip divided into three lobes and the lower lip into two lobes, the corolla is clearly lip-shaped, the anthers are two-chambered, it is an annual plant, and the fruit has a reticulated pattern on its surface.

Perilla and egoma, in particular, have been cultivated since ancient times and are now mainly used in pickled plums and salad dressings, making them extremely familiar plants to the Japanese people.

However, since shiso and egoma are taxonomically the same species but are varieties of each other, they easily hybridize, resulting in many intermediate individuals and often making it difficult to distinguish between them.

Furthermore, the name "lemon egoma" sounds like it's an invasive species, and it's easily confused with egoma (perilla).

These three types are often confused due to these factors.

What is the difference between shiso egoma and lemon egoma?

First, the three species can be broadly classified into perilla/egoma and lemon egoma (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

In perilla and egoma, the lower and middle parts of the stem are sparsely covered with short hairs and curly long hairs, the bracts are green or reddish-purple, and the bracts are ovate to broadly ovate, with no laterally broad elliptical ones appearing.

In contrast, lemon perilla has dense, downward-pointing short hairs on the lower middle part of the stem, white bracts, and the bracts at the base of the inflorescence are broadly oval in shape.

The term "bract" might be unfamiliar, but here it refers to a leaf-like structure that surrounds a flower or fruit from below. The Lamiaceae genus is quite conspicuous. In particular, in lemon perilla, the bracts are broadly oval in shape and almost completely cover the flower or fruit.

While perilla and sesame are considered cultivated varieties based on chromosome number, lemon perilla is considered a wild species. Despite its name, "lemon perilla" is surprisingly a wild species; it's simply named because it smells like lemons.

Therefore, while perilla and egoma grow in areas close to human settlements, lemon egoma usually grows in mountainous areas at slightly higher elevations with a greater degree of naturalness. Keep this point in mind as well.

Furthermore, the other species, Perilla hirtella, can be distinguished by the fact that its leaf blades have serrations all the way to the base, while Perilla setoyensis can be distinguished by its white flowers and hairy calyx.

What is the difference between shiso and egoma?

Distinguishing between shiso (perilla) and egoma (perilla) is more difficult than you might think. This is because, taxonomically, they are the same species but are varieties of each other, making them prone to hybridization and resulting in many intermediate individuals.

The most fundamental difference lies in the "ingredients" they contain and the "scent" that results from them.

Perilla contains perillaldehyde (approximately 55% in essential oil), which gives it the smell you get when eating pickled plums, while egoma contains perillaketone and egomaketone, which have a somewhat unpleasant smell.

Therefore, it exhibits allelopathy, inhibiting the growth of other plants and possessing antibacterial properties (Komai et al., 1989). In the case of perilla, this property is why it is used in pickles.

However, this method requires directly smelling the living plant, which is a bit inconvenient.

Several morphological differences have also been observed.

In perilla, the leaf blade is membranous, wrinkled or flat, reddish-purple or green, the calyx is 5-6 mm long when fruiting, and the schizocarp is 0.7-1.5 mm long. In contrast, in egoma, the leaf blade is somewhat thicker, membranous, flat, and usually green, the calyx is 8-9 mm long when fruiting, and the schizocarp is 1.5-2 mm long.

Therefore, if it is clearly very red, you can probably determine that it is shiso (perilla).

However, as mentioned above, due to hybridization, many plants do not fit the characteristics described, and many have been found to have intermediate smells and shapes. Known smells include those that are intermediate between perilla and shiso, those that are almost odorless, and those that are similar to lemon perilla but with a slightly grassy smell.

Therefore, it may be difficult to definitively say which category a non-cultivated specimen belongs to.

What are the differences in uses between shiso and egoma?

While both shiso and egoma are sometimes used as food, their uses differ.

Due to the flavor of perillaldehyde, shiso leaves, sprouts, flower spikes, and fruits are often eaten as is. They are mainly used as a garnish for dishes such as sashimi, hand-rolled sushi, and chilled tofu, to add flavor and color, and to mask the fishy smell.

Typical local products include shibazuke (pickled eggplant) and umeboshi (pickled plums), and shiso dressing, shiso furikake (rice seasoning), and shiso juice are also sold.

On the other hand, perilla seeds contain perilla ketones and perilla ketones, so they are more commonly used as perilla oil than eaten raw. In Japan, they were used for lighting until the Heian period and were the most commonly used oil until rapeseed oil became widespread. After rapeseed oil became popular, its use declined for a time, but it has been re-evaluated because it contains a large amount of alpha-linolenic acid, an essential fatty acid, and is now quite commonly found in the market. It is sometimes sold under the name "shiso oil," but it is usually perilla oil itself, not shiso. Alpha-linolenic acid is believed to have cardiovascular disease prevention and antidepressant effects, and research is progressing on it.

In Korea, the leaves are used in samgyeopsal (pork belly), and like lettuce, meat and pickled foods are wrapped in perilla leaves before eating. Perilla oil is called "chaso oil" and has been used in Korea for a longer time than in Japan.

What variety of shiso is it?

Several varieties of perilla are known.

Perilla frutescens var. crispa f. purpurea is a variety with leaves that have shallow serrations, are wrinkle-free, and are reddish-purple in color.

Perilla frutescens var. crispa f. viridis is a green variety with leaves that have shallow serrations, are wrinkle-free, and are green in color.

Perilla frutescens var. crispa f. rosea is a variety with leaves that have shallow serrations and few wrinkles, and the upper surface of the leaves is green while the lower surface is reddish-purple.

Perilla frutescens var. crispa f. crispa is a variety with deeply serrated and wrinkled leaves and a reddish-purple color.

Perilla frutescens var. crispa 'Viridi-crispa' is a green variety with deeply serrated and wrinkled leaves.

Perilla frutescens var. crispa 'Discolor' is a variety with deeply serrated and wrinkled leaves, and the upper surface of the leaves is green while the lower surface is reddish-purple.

However, this classification is continuous, and clear distinctions are difficult. There are also obvious hybrids that are mixed together.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Komai, K., Hamada, M., Iwamura, J., & Shindo, T. 1989. Allelopathic substances in egoma, Perilla frutescens var. japonica. Memoirs of the Faculty of Agriculture of Kinki University 22: 23-29. https://kindai.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/4989

Murakami, Moriichi. 2021. About the cover. Perilla. Tomiyaku 43(11): 28. https://www.tomiyaku.or.jp/file_upload/100809/_main/100809_02.pdf

Murakami, Moriichi. 2023. About the cover: Perilla. Tomiyaku 45(9): 24. https://www.tomiyaku.or.jp/file_upload/101122/_main/101122_02.pdf

RBG Kew. 2023. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Both Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum belong to the mint family and are sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes. Their most significant commonality is the similar shape of their flowers. Specifically, both have very long stamens and pistils that curve downwards (curl) and protrude far from the flower. Therefore, they may sometimes be confused. However, these two species have different distributions and differ at the genus level. Specifically, there are differences in how the plants grow, the markings on the flowers, and the amount of hair on the leaves. This article will explain the differences between Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum.

What are Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum frutescens?

Tripora divaricata, also known as Caryopteris erythrosora, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in China and the Korean Peninsula, growing in mountain foothills and fields (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It is sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Rotheca myricoides, also known as Blue Elfin or Blue Wing, is an evergreen shrub widely distributed in East and South Africa, and cultivated in botanical gardens in Japan for ornamental purposes (RBG Kew, 2023). In Japan, many articles list its scientific name as Clerodendrum ugandense, but this is considered a synonym (former scientific name) overseas.

Both belong to the mint family and are sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes. Their most significant commonality is the similar shape of their flowers.

Specifically, the corolla is bluish-purple, has a long corolla tube, and is two-lipped, with the upper lip divided into two lobes and the lower lip into three lobes, appearing to be divided into a total of five parts. The central lobe of the lower lip is particularly large and recurved. The stamens and pistil are very long, curved downwards (curled), and protrude far outside the flower.

This highly unique characteristic is known to play a role in cleverly attaching pollen to the backs of bumblebees, thereby facilitating pollination (Tie et al., 2023).

Furthermore, the leaves also have coarse serrations, and their shape is quite similar.

These characteristics may sometimes lead to confusion between cultivated and non-cultivated individuals.

What is the difference between Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum?

However, these two species are quite far apart taxonomically (Ohashi et al., 2017; Herman & Condy, 2017).

First, there is a major difference between these two species: Clerodendrum trichotomum belongs to the genus Clerodendrum, while Clerodendrum sibiricum belongs to the genus Clerodendrum.

Therefore, it can be expected that there will be significant differences in morphology as well.

The similarity in flower shapes is merely a coincidence, but as mentioned above, their purpose is the same, making this an interesting example of convergent evolution occurring in East Asia and Africa for the same purpose.

Specifically, the difference is that Clerodendrum trichotomum (genus Clerodendrum) is a herbaceous plant, while Clerodendrum sibiricum (genus Clerodendrum) is a shrub.

In other words, the bark of the Caryopteris plant does not become woody like that of a tree.

If we focus only on the two species, Clerodendrum trichotomum and Clerodendrum sibiricum, there are many other differences as well.

Regarding the leaves, there is a difference in that Clerodendrum trichotomum lacks long hairs on the leaf blade and petiole, and short hairs are difficult to find unless you look very carefully, whereas Clerodendrum sibiricum has many long hairs on the leaf blade and petiole, which are clearly visible in photographs.

It should be noted that the leaf shape of Clerodendrum trichotomum varies greatly; some have rounded leaf tips, unlike Clerodendrum trichotomum, while others have tail-like leaf tips, similar to Clerodendrum trichotomum.

Regarding the flowers, one difference is that Clerodendrum trichotomum has a mottled corolla, while Clerodendrum sibiricum does not.

The above should make the distinction clear. In the case of wild specimens in Japan, of course, only Clerodendrum trichotomum is the same. In fact, Clerodendrum frutescens is rarely cultivated, so you may not have many opportunities to see it.

References

Herman, PPJ, & Condy, G. 2017. Rotheca myricoides sensu lato (Lamiaceae: Ajugoideae). Flowering Plants of Africa 65: 146-152. ISSN: 0015-4504, ISBN: 9781928224204, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318013789

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Ohashi, Hiroyoshi; Kadota, Yuichi; Murata, Hitoshi; Yonekura, Koji; and Kihara, Hiroshi. 2017. Wild Plants of Japan (Revised New Edition, Vol. 5: Convolvulaceae to Caprifoliaceae). Heibonsha, Tokyo. 760pp. ISBN: 9784582535358

RBG Kew. 2023. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Tie, S., He, YD, Lázaro, A., Inouye, DW, Guo, YH, & Yang, CF 2023. Floral trait variation across individual plants within a population enhances defense capability to nectar robbing. Plant Diversity 45(3): 315-325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2022.11.002

Basil, sweet basil, holy basil, and lemon basil all belong to the Ocimum genus of the Lamiaceae family, are native to Asia, and share the common characteristic of having edible leaves. Therefore, many people may not know the differences in their shapes and uses. While "basil" can refer to all members of the Ocimum genus or specifically to Ocimum basil (sweet basil), the others refer to individual species. Each has differences at the "species" level, not just "variety" level, and these differences are reflected in the shape of the flowers and leaves. Historically, there are differences in how basil, holy basil, and lemon basil are used, but considering only current uses in Japan, basil is used in Italian cuisine, holy basil in dishes like gapao rice, and lemon basil in ethnic stir-fries. The flowers are labiate, and the fruits are small nuts. This article will explain the classification, morphology, and uses of the Ocimum genus.

What are basil, sweet basil, holy basil, and lemon basil?

The term "basil" generally refers to a group of plants belonging to the genus Ocimum in the Lamiaceae family, or to a single plant called Ocimum basil (sweet basil).

Ocimum basilicum, commonly known as basil or sweet basil, is a perennial plant native to South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia (though it is treated as an annual in Japan as it cannot survive winter there) (RBG Kew, 2023). It is cultivated worldwide for medicinal and culinary purposes, including in Japan, where it is primarily used in Italian cuisine. Hereafter, it will be referred to simply as basil.

Ocimum tenuiflorum, commonly known as holy basil or gapao, is a perennial plant native to South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia (though it is treated as an annual in Japan as it cannot survive the winter). It is cultivated in India and Thailand for medicinal and culinary purposes. It is also sometimes cultivated in Japan.

Lemon basil (Ocimum x africanum) is a hybrid of basil (commonly known as Ocimum basil) and American basil (commonly known as Ocimum americanum). It is a perennial plant (though it cannot survive winter in Japan, so it is treated as an annual) native to tropical and subtropical Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia. It is also cultivated in Japan.

All of them belong to the genus Ocimum in the Lamiaceae family, are native to Asia, and have edible leaves. Therefore, many people may not know the differences in their shape or uses.

What are the differences in shape between basil, holy basil, and lemon basil?

On gardening websites, holy basil and lemon basil are sometimes featured alongside basil varieties such as Genovese basil, bush basil, and cinnamon basil.

However, it's important to understand that basil, holy basil, and lemon basil are biologically very different species that do not crossbreed in nature and exhibit significant variation. The term "variety" in biological terms refers to something that has been improved by humans or has slight variations in form.

Biologically, one key difference is that the base of the filaments of the posterior stamens in basil and lemon basil are tooth-like, whereas in holy basil they are toothless (Wu & Raven, 1994).

However, this part is not visible from the outside, and the flowers are usually removed, so it may not be very practical.

There are other differences in the flowers as well. While the corollas of basil and lemon basil are white, those of holy basil are primarily white but have reddish parts, giving them an overall pink appearance.

While there is considerable variation in the leaves and this doesn't always apply, basil and lemon basil often have low serrations that are nearly entire, whereas holy basil has low serrations that are clearly visible.

Holy basil is characterized by the presence of long hairs on its leaf stalks. However, there are known varieties of basil that also have long hairs. But these are rare in Japan, so this can also be considered a significant distinguishing feature.

The main difference between basil and lemon basil is that basil leaves are usually glossy, with raised veins and a tendency to curl upwards, while lemon basil leaves are generally less glossy, have less pronounced veins, and do not curl upwards. However, there may be slight variations depending on the variety.

As the name suggests, lemon basil has a lemon flavor, which isn't a physical characteristic, but it can be a clue to distinguish it from other varieties.

What are the differences in how basil, holy basil, and lemon basil are used?

There are considerable historical differences in how they are used.

Although basil is native to Asia, it was already used by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, and is now used all over the world. Initially, it was mainly used in rituals and for medicinal purposes, but now its uses in cooking have expanded. In Japan, it was originally introduced from Qing Dynasty China as a medicinal herb, but now it is more commonly used in Italian dishes such as pasta, pizza, salads, and pesto.

In terms of taste, it has a refreshing and sweet aroma, and when you put it in your mouth, you feel a slight spiciness after the sweetness.

On the other hand, holy basil is used only in its native Asia. In India, it is used as medicine in Ayurveda, and in Thailand, it is used as a food ingredient (herb) in stir-fries and curries. In Japan, it is perhaps best known in gapao rice. It is also sometimes used to make tea.

In terms of taste, it is said to have a strong aroma, with a spicy kick and a refreshing, minty sensation. The difference from basil is that it lacks a sweet aroma and is spicier.

Lemon basil is widely cultivated from Africa to Asia and is used in Arabic, Indonesian, Filipino, Laotian, Malay, Persian, and Thai cuisine. In Japan, there don't seem to be any particularly specific uses for it, but it is often used in stir-fries and salads.

As the name suggests, it has a lemon flavor.

What is the structure of a flower?

Like many members of the mint family, the genus Ocimum (basil) commonly has labiate flowers. Labiate flowers have a tubular corolla that is divided into two lobes at the tip, resembling lips.

When cultivating this plant, if you allow it to flower, the leaves and stems will harden and the flavor will deteriorate. Therefore, if you are growing it to harvest the leaves, you will need to remove the flowers at the appropriate time.

Basil flowers from July to September. The dense inflorescence is 10-20 cm long and minutely pubescent, while the whorled inflorescence is minutely pubescent or densely pubescent, with the same at the apex. The bracts are sessile, oblanceolate, 5-8 mm long, with a tapering base, ciliate margins, and an acute apex, and are colored. The pedicels are about 3 mm long in flower and less than 5 mm long in fruit. The calyx is campanulate, about 4 mm long and 3.5 mm wide, hairy on the outside and pubescent on the throat of the inside, with a tube about 2 mm long. The central calyx tooth of the upper lip of the calyx is widest, about 2 mm long and 1 mm wide, nearly orbicular, concave, and minutely apex. The lateral teeth are broadly ovate, about 1.5 mm long, and acute at the apex. The calyx teeth of the lower lip of the calyx are lanceolate, about 2 mm long, spine-like at the apex, and ciliate. The calyx persists in fruit, and its veins are prominent. The corolla is purplish or the upper lip is white, with fine hairs on the outside of the expanded part. The corolla tube is about 3 mm long. The upper lip is broad, about 3 mm long and 4.5 mm wide, 4-lobed, and almost flat. The lower lip is purple, about 6 mm long. The stamens are separate, slightly protruding, the two posterior ones are toothed, and have fine hairs at the base.

Holy basil flowers from June to August. It bears dense spikes or panicles 6-8 cm long. The involucral bracts are sessile and heart-shaped, about 1.5 x 1.5 mm, with sharp tips, and the pedicels are 1-1.5 cm long. The pedicels are about 2.5 mm long. The sepals are whorled, 2.5 mm long, and covered with soft hairs, and the corolla tube is about 1.5 mm long. The serrations in the middle of the upper lip are broadly elliptical and abruptly pointed, while the lateral serrations are broadly triangular, shorter and more pointed than the serrations on the lower lip, and the serrations on the lower lip are lanceolate with pointed tips. The corolla is white to reddish, about 3 mm long, slightly raised, and sparsely covered with soft hairs. The upper lip is ovate, less than 1 x 2.5 mm, and the lower lip is oblong and flattened, about 1 x 0.6 mm. The stamens protrude slightly. The base of the posterior filaments is hairy.

Lemon basil flowers from July to September. Its flowers are very similar to those of regular basil.

What is the structure of the fruit?

The fruits of the Ocimum genus are all small nuts. These nuts are small, non-splitting nuts in which a hard, woody pericarp encloses a single seed. They absorb moisture when wet. The Japanese name "mebouki" (meaning "basil") is said to have originated from the fact that when the fruit absorbs moisture, it quickly becomes covered in a jelly-like substance, which was useful for removing debris from the eyes.

Basil nuts are dark brown, oval-shaped, about 2.5 mm long and 1 mm wide, and have concave glandular dots.

The nutlets of holy basil have a brown, ovate ovary, measuring approximately 1 x 0.7 mm, and are dotted with concave glands.

References

RBG Kew. 2023. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Wu, ZY, & Raven, PH (Eds.). 1994. Flora of China (Vol. 17 Verbenaceae through Solanaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. 342pp. ISBN: 9780915279241

Rosemary (Rosemary vernalis) and Westringia (Australian rosemary) both belong to the mint family and have similar names. In Japan, they are commonly planted as ornamental plants, and their leaves and flowers look quite similar at first glance . However, rosemary is native to Europe and North Africa, while Australian rosemary is native to Australia. More importantly, upon closer observation, you will find that the shape of the flowers and leaves, and how the leaves are attached, are all different. The difference in scent is also significant. Rosemary has been used for medicinal and culinary purposes since ancient times, while Australian rosemary is cultivated solely for ornamental purposes. It is completely different from lavender in both appearance and scent. The flowers are labiate, with the stamens and pistils being longer in rosemary and shorter in Australian rosemary. Both are visited by bees, but the species may be slightly different. The fruit is a schizocarp, with each small nutlet being dispersed by gravity like a seed. However, in rosemary, the seeds are dispersed by ants, while it is known to release a jelly-like substance that repels ants, resulting in a seemingly contradictory ecological behavior for a certain reason. This article will explain the classification, morphology, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of rosemary and Australian rosemary.

What is rosemary or Australian rosemary?

Salvia rosmarinus, also known as rosemary, is an evergreen shrub native to Europe and North Africa along the Mediterranean Sea. It is cultivated worldwide, including in Japan, for ornamental, medicinal, and culinary purposes. The Japanese name "mannenrou" originates from Chinese. Rosmarinus officinalis is the old scientific name and is now considered a synonym (Drew et al., 2017).

Australian rosemary, also known as Westringia fruticosa, is an evergreen shrub native to eastern Australia, growing on coastlines and harbor foreshores, often on exposed cliffs of rocky soil (Harden, 1993). It is cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide, including in Japan.

Both belong to the mint family, have similar names, and are commonly planted in Japan for ornamental purposes. Their leaves and flowers also look quite similar at first glance. The fact that their leaf margins curl back is exactly the same. Therefore, some people may have trouble distinguishing them.

What is the difference between rosemary and Australian rosemary?

These two types are very similar, but they differ in several ways (Harden, 1993; Wu & Raven, 1994).

First, as mentioned above, rosemary is native to the Mediterranean region, while Australian rosemary, as its name suggests, is native to Australia. Therefore, it can be predicted that they have different evolutionary origins.

Furthermore, there is a significant difference in classification, as rosemary belongs to the Salvia genus, while Australian rosemary belongs to the Westringia genus.

The flowers are probably the easiest to spot. In rosemary, the stamens are very long and clearly protrude from the corolla, curling inward, whereas in Australian rosemary, the stamens are considerably shorter and do not protrude from the corolla.

There are also differences in the leaves. Both have slender leaves with edges that curl towards the underside, but rosemary has rounded leaf tips, while Australian rosemary has pointed leaf tips.

While rosemary leaves are arranged oppositely (in whorls of two), Australian rosemary leaves are typically arranged in whorls of four. In other words, rosemary leaves only grow two per stem, while Australian rosemary leaves can grow up to four.

One distinguishing feature is that while rosemary leaves release a pleasant fragrance when rubbed, Australian rosemary does not. This is a simple way to tell them apart, even without knowledge of plant morphology, but please use common sense when verifying this.

What is the difference between rosemary and lavender?

Lavender is also a plant belonging to the mint family, native to the Mediterranean region. Perhaps because of its purple flowers and herbaceous nature, the difference between rosemary and lavender is a frequently searched topic on the internet.

However, lavender is completely different from rosemary.

Lavender leaves, like rosemary leaves, are thin, but they are noticeably larger and longer, and they don't curl towards the underside.

As will be discussed later, rosemary produces small inflorescences but does not form independent flower spikes, whereas lavender varieties do form flower spikes, with the flowers clustered together.

In terms of scent, lavender has a sweet fragrance due to its main components being linalyl acetate and linalool, while rosemary has a refreshing scent due to its main component being camphor.

For more information about lavender, please see our other article.

What are the differences between English lavender, French lavender, and Dentata lavender? How to distinguish between similar varieties! What are the effects of their essential oils? Why are there buds mixed in with the flowers? Were the seeds dispersed by sheep?!

Lavender is extremely popular in gardening, known for its purple flowers and renowned for its medicinal properties. However, few articles properly explain the differences between various types of lavender. The visual differences in lavender are not simply variations in "cultivar," but rather entirely different species. Here are three representative types...

ecological-information.com

What are the differences in how rosemary and Australian rosemary are used?

The use of rosemary has a very long history, with records of its use appearing as early as 5000 BC on clay tablets written in cuneiform by the Sumerians, who formed the Mesopotamian civilization (Ambrose et al., 2016). The ancient Egyptians also used rosemary for embalming corpses from 3500 BC. Over the centuries, it spread to Europe, China, and America, and is now used all over the world.

As in ancient times, rosemary is sometimes used medicinally in folk medicine, but its most common use is as a culinary herb. Rosemary leaves have a crisp, sweet, and refreshing aroma and are primarily used to mask the odor of meat dishes, as well as as a flavoring for foods such as stuffings and roasts of lamb, pork, chicken, and turkey.

It is also well-known as an essential oil, characterized by a refreshing, cool scent from camphor and a sweet scent from borneol, and is said to relieve mental fatigue (Aromatherapy Certification Exam Preparation Study Group, 2020).

They are popular as ornamental plants, and perhaps because they are hardy, drought-tolerant, and cold-tolerant, they seem to be found in almost every town in Japan.

On the other hand, Australian rosemary has a relatively short history in terms of its uses; it is not commonly used as a herb and is only cultivated for ornamental purposes.

What is the structure of a flower?

Like many other plants in the mint family, it has a basic structure with "lipped flowers." Lipped flowers are fused petals with a tubular corolla that is divided into two parts, an upper lip and a lower lip, at the end, resembling lips. Rosemary and Australian rosemary have their upper lip further divided into two lobes and their lower lip into three lobes.

Rosemary has a very long flowering period in Japan, from February to October. The calyx is about 4 mm long and has dense white stellate to fine downy hairs and white glandular dots on its outer surface (Wu & Raven, 1994). The corolla is two-lipped, bluish-purple, 1-1.5 cm long, and has sparse short hairs and glandular dots on its outer surface. The upper lip is nearly orbicular, 2-lobed, with ovate lobes (some appear narrower due to outward curling). The central lobe of the lower lip is nearly orbicular, about 10 mm wide, with an ovate-triangular toothed tip that narrows at the base, becoming claw-like. The lateral lobes are oblong. The corolla tube is about half the length of the corolla and slightly protrudes from the calyx. There are two stamens attached to the base of the upper lip, curving upward from the corolla. The filaments are about 10 mm long and the pollen is white. There is one pistil, which ends slightly shorter than the stamens.

Australian rosemary blooms in Japan from April to October. The sepals are 2.9–3.5 mm long, and the corolla is 10–14 mm long. The wild species is white with purple or brown punctations, while cultivated varieties can be pink (Harden, 1993). It has two stamens, two staminodes, and one pistil, which is less than half the length of the corolla lobes.

How is pollination carried out? Do differences in flower shape affect pollination methods?

What kinds of insects are attracted to the distinctive curled stamens and pistils of rosemary?

According to research in southern Spain, a diverse range of bees, including small Apidae, medium-sized Apidae, Apidae, and Bombus species, visit and contribute to pollination (Herrera, 2005).

In addition, there are records of a species of ancient bee, Hylaeus nobuyukii, being found in Japan (Tadauchi and Murao, 2014).

However, among these, the European honeybee (Apis mellifera) is considered particularly important because its distribution area overlaps considerably with other species. It is well known that European honeybees visit Japan (Sasaki, 2010), and I myself have observed them many times.

When a bee inserts its tongue into a flower in search of nectar, the anthers of the stamens and the stigma of the pistil come into contact with the bee's back, causing pollen to adhere to it or to the bee's back, thus facilitating pollination.

On the other hand, Australian rosemary does not have curls on its stamens and pistils.

While research on Australian rosemary appears to be lacking, there are records of leafcutter bees visiting it in Australia (Pauli et al., 2020), as well as Amegilla cingulata, a species of bee native to Australia that prefers blue flowers (Dollin, 2020).

Additionally, a blog from North America shows a photograph of a bumblebee species, Bombus melanopygus, visiting a flower (Garvey, 2017).

In the related but different species Westringia rubiaefolia, there is only one recorded instance of a bee visiting the plant (Hingston & Mc Quillan, 2000).

The exact pollination method of Australian rosemary is unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that pollination occurs when bees come into contact with the short stamens and pistils at their feet.

Both are visited by bees, so there doesn't seem to be much difference between them, but why is there a difference in the presence or absence of curls?

The exact reason is unclear because their natural distribution areas are so different, but I think rosemary might be selecting bees as pollinators whose bodies fit more snugly to the curls of its stamens and pistils.

In the Iberian Peninsula, rosemary flowers are known to vary in size with altitude, becoming larger at higher elevations (Herrera, 2005). One possible reason for this is the increased prevalence of larger, thermoregulatory bees, such as bumblebees, at higher altitudes.

In other words, rosemary may be a specialist at the individual level, targeting only certain bees that can efficiently pollinate at that location, while Australian rosemary may be a generalist, targeting a wide range of bees.

Although research is still insufficient, comparing these closely related species may help us understand the reasons behind their respective evolutionary paths.

What is the structure of the fruit?

Both rosemary and Australian rosemary have schizocarps, which are fruits composed of four nutlets (Wu & Raven, 1994; Western Australian Herbarium, 2023). A schizocarp is a fruit that originates from a single pistil with multiple chambers, which divides vertically into several units. Each nutlet contains only one seed. Some people might call these small nutlets "seeds," but strictly speaking, they are fruits.

Rosemary nuts are ovoid-spherical, smooth, and contain elaiosomes.

Australian rosemary nutlets are 1-2 mm in size.

How do they disperse their seeds? Ants were both allies and enemies!?

Both rosemary and Australian rosemary are dispersed by gravity, and since Australian rosemary is particularly small, wind dispersal may also be used.

However, rosemary is the only species whose seeds are dispersed by ants because its nutlets contain elaosomes (Engelbrecht & García-Fayos, 2012).

However, rosemary does more than just that; interestingly, when it absorbs moisture, its nutlets become covered in a jelly-like substance. Imagine tomato seeds, for example. Why does it produce this substance?

The reason for this is thought to be that it serves to prevent ants from eating the plant. This may seem to contradict what was said earlier, but rosemary only provides ants with ellaosomes as food, and the main part of the plant that produces the sprout after the ellaosomes have been removed cannot be eaten. Also, ants can come directly to the plant before the nuts mature and carry away the entire immature nut.

Therefore, by absorbing moisture from rainfall, or from strong morning dew or fog in the summer, they prevent the food from sticking to the ground or being carried away by ants by making it difficult for the ants to grasp it with their mandibles.

You probably won't have many opportunities to observe this kind of natural behavior in Japan, but if you're growing them from seed, be sure to take some time to observe it.

References

Ambrose, DCP, Manickavasagan, A., & Naik, R. 2016. Leafy Medicinal Herbs: Botany, Chemistry, Postharvest Technology and Uses. CABI, Wallingford. 312pp. ISBN: 9781780645599

Aromatherapy Certification Exam Preparation Study Group. 2020. AROMA Textbook: Aromatherapy Certification Exam Level 1 & 2 Passing Text & Practice Questions (3rd Edition). Shoei-sha, 288pp. ISBN: 9784798162959

Dollin, A. 2020. Blue Banded Bees. Aussie Bee Online 27: 1-6. ISSN: 1329-0231, https://www.aussiebee.com.au/aussiebeeonline027.pdf

Drew, BT, González-Gallegos, JG, Xiang, CL, Kriebel, R., Drummond, CP, Walked, JB, & Sytsma, KJ 2017. Salvia united: The greatest good for the greatest number. Taxon 66(1): 133-145. https://doi.org/10.12705/661.7

Engelbrecht, M., & García-Fayos, P. 2012. Mucilage secretion by seeds doubles the chance to escape removal by ants. Plant Ecology 213(7): 1167-1175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-012-0074-9

Garvey KK, 2017, March 6. The Wonders of a Bumble Bee on Westringia. Bug Squad. https://ucanr.edu/blog/bug-squad/article/wonders-bumble-bee-westringia

Harden, GJ 1993. Flora of New South Wales (Vol. 3). UNSW Press, Randwick. 717pp. ISBN: 9780868401720, https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Westringia~fruticosa

Herrera, J. 2005. Flower size variation in Rosmarinus officinalis: individuals, populations and habitats. Annals of Botany 95(3): 431-437. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mci041

Hingston, AB, & Mc Quillan, PB 2000. Are pollination syndromes useful predictors of floral visitors in Tasmania?. Austral Ecology 25(6): 600-609. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2000.tb00065.x

Pauli, N., Mouat, C., Prendergast, K., Chalmer, L., Ramalho, CE, & Ligtermoet, E. 2020. The social and ecological values of native gardens along streets: A socio-ecological study in the suburbs of Perth. Clean Air and Urban Landscapes Hub (CAUL), Melbourne. 83pp. https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/the-social-and-ecological-values-of-native-gardens-along-streets-/

Sasaki, Masami. 2010. The World of Flowers as Seen by Bees: Nectar-Producing Plants of the Four Seasons and Gifts from Honeybees. Kaiyusha, Tokyo. 413pp. ISBN: 9784905930273

Osamu Tadauchi and Tatsuki Murao. 2014. Illustrated Guide to Japanese Bees. Bun-ichi Sogo Shuppan, Tokyo. 479pp. ISBN: 9784829988428

Wu, ZY, & Raven, PH (Eds.). 1994. Flora of China (Vol. 17 Verbenaceae through Solanaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. 342pp. ISBN: 9780915279241

Western Australian Herbarium. 2023. Florabase: the Western Australian Flora. Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions. https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/