I originally have a science background, but I enjoy reading world history content.

I've heard something that caught my attention. It's the theory that spices (spices excluding the stems, leaves, and flowers) don't have much antibacterial property, and that "spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat." I've always been skeptical about whether this is true.

Our investigation has concluded that this theory is highly unfounded. The reason is that spices are too expensive for ordinary people to use.

The medicinal properties of spices themselves are diverse, including antibacterial, antioxidant, appetite-stimulating, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the reason why wealthy people in Europe and America sought out spices from abroad during the Age of Discovery was likely for their exotic flavors and because they stimulated the secretion of addictive neurotransmitters (brain hormones) in the brain.

Ultimately, this develops into conspicuous consumption among the wealthy in Europe and America (consumption to flaunt wealth).

However, it is becoming clear that some spices can actually be used to mask the characteristic fishy smell, so they are not spoiled, but it is true that some spices can be used to eliminate fishy odors.

Another theory suggests that the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of spices, which enhance their preservation, were important. This is an explanation that you sometimes see in high school world history classes.

While it is true that spices have antibacterial properties, it is unlikely that there was a demand for them in Europe and America during the Age of Discovery. On the other hand, antibacterial properties were likely important in their places of origin.

This article will explain why the idea that spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat is false, and the real reason why European countries sought spices during the Age of Discovery.

What are the differences between Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum), Chinese pepper (Zanthoxylum sibiricum), and Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum ailanthoides)? We'll explain how to distinguish between similar species! What are their uses? What insects visit the flowers? Birds apparently love the seeds because they don't find them spicy!?

Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum), Japanese sansho, and Japanese sansho are common species in Japan, and Japanese pepper in particular remains an essential ingredient in cooking today. All belong to the genus Zanthoxylum in the Rutaceae family, and are very similar in that they have many thorns all over the plant and odd-pinnately compound leaves consisting of an odd number of leaflets. Japanese pepper has a distinctive aroma...

ecological-information.com

What's the difference between dill (yin-dill) and fennel (foeniculum vulgare)? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Dill and fennel both belong to the Apiaceae family, share a strong aroma throughout the plant, and are used both as herbs (leaves) and spices (fruits). Their leaves, in particular, are known as "fish herbs" and pair exceptionally well with fish dishes. Furthermore, they are also similar in morphology...

ecological-information.com

Why can we say that the theory that spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat during the Age of Discovery is false?

Why is the claim that "spices were used to mask the smell of rotten meat" considered to have little basis in fact?

The biggest problem is that spices from the Age of Discovery were too expensive (Murphy, 2024).

Europe already had an abundance of native herbs used in cooking, such as sage, rosemary, and thyme, as well as strongly flavored vegetables like leeks and onions. However, "spices" (such as pepper, nutmeg, and cloves) could only be imported through the spice trade from the Middle East and Asia.

Exotic spices, popularized by returning Crusaders and pilgrims, were already in vogue as highly prized luxuries among the upper classes in the Middle Ages, even before the Age of Discovery. However, their relative rarity, prestige, and the long distances it took to reach tables in France and England made them extremely expensive. They were simply unaffordable for ordinary households.

Furthermore, most households could quickly slaughter and eat animals by raising livestock or fish, hunting, or commissioning these activities. Examples of livestock included geese, ducks, chickens, pigs, and sheep.

In addition, if you have any leftovers, there are preservation methods such as salting, smoking, drying, and honey-preserving. Jerky and ham are examples of this.

From the above, it can be concluded that medieval Europeans did not deliberately eat rotten meat.

However, it has been confirmed that essential oils extracted from the fruit (fennel seeds) of fennel (a type of spice native to the Mediterranean coast) and the kernels of nutmeg seeds (native to Southeast Asia) can actually eliminate the odor of meat and fish (Takahashi et al., 2004).

Therefore, while it remains possible that native European plants like fennel were used to remove animal or fishy odors, it's unlikely to be the smell of rotting meat.

Why did the misinformation spread?

Why did this claim circulate? An influential book is involved (Myers, 2006).

In 1939, J.C. Drummond and Anne Wilbraham published "The Englishman's Food: Five Centuries of English Diet," in which they suggested that the wealthy in medieval Europe (and cunning bakers and grocery shop owners) desperately needed spices, primarily because meat was starting to spoil and the spices masked the smell and flavor of stale ingredients.

However, Drummond was a biochemist, not an expert in medieval food culture. Furthermore, he assumed from the outset that medieval preservation techniques were rudimentary and that "the main purpose of spices was to mask flavors." His work lacked documentary evidence and relied heavily on misinterpretations and speculation.

However, the readability of his writing, combined with the authority he gained from his social standing, gave his books weight and made them an ideal reference for anyone wanting to casually research the history of food.

This theory, like a rumor spreading, created a chain of mentions where inaccurate information was repeated as if it were the truth.

Worst of all, the speaker heard the same inaccurate information from multiple sources, but failed to realize that it all stemmed from a single source, creating the misconception that this theory was the dominant one.

What was the real reason Europe sought spices from abroad during the Age of Discovery?

So what was the reason for seeking spices during the Age of Discovery (mid-15th to mid-17th centuries)?

The primary reason is probably that it's a "delicacy" and has an exotic taste.

This might seem a bit simplistic, but the tendency for wealthy people to become gourmets in search of new flavors and seek out rare ingredients is still observed today.

If it were simply delicious, that would be the end of it, but for example, although it is native to Central and South America, the capsaicin contained in the fruit of the chili pepper is known to stimulate the secretion of beta-endorphins and dopamine, which are types of neurotransmitters (brain hormones) in the brain and are also called brain narcotics, due to its spiciness (pain) (Fattori et al., 2016).

This can have an effect that, while not pathological, could be described as addiction.

Other examples of spices affecting brain hormones, although primarily based on animal studies, include the following:

These effects likely contributed to a stronger craving for spices (Le Couteur & Burreson, 2003=2011).

As trade further developed and spices became even more expensive, the use of spices evolved into a way for the wealthy in Europe and America to flaunt their wealth and demonstrate that they could afford to use expensive spices on a daily basis (Freedman, 2005).

This corresponds to what is called "constancy consumption" in economics. This is not merely "showing off," but has been theorized in evolutionary biology as "handicap theory," and is known as an important motivation for consumption in humans (Miller, 2009=2017).

As described above, the reasons for seeking spices during the Age of Discovery likely evolved from the pursuit of delicacies to addiction and then to conspicuous consumption.

The reason Europe went to the trouble of obtaining spices by sea was that in the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire destroyed the Byzantine Empire and expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean, imposing extremely high tariffs. As a result, the supply of spices that had originally come in through the Eastern trade (Levant trade) between Islamic Qalimi merchants and Italian merchants in Venice was cut off.

As a result, the Portuguese and Spanish efforts to find spices unaffected by the Islamic world spread to the imperialist powers of the Netherlands, Britain, France, Germany, America, Italy, and Belgium, leading to colonial rule by Western powers around the world.

Is the antibacterial properties of spices related to the demand for spices?

However, and this is a bit complicated, while the reasons why Europeans and Americans sought spices during the Age of Discovery can be attributed to the pursuit of delicacies, their addictive nature, and their conspicuous consumption, the reasons why the indigenous people of those colonies used spices are likely different.

For the local people, unlike Westerners, spices grew naturally, were inexpensive, and were deeply integrated into their customs and food culture.

While taste and addictive properties are certainly contributing factors, the reasons for its long-term integration into the culture likely include its lipid-derived antioxidant, antibacterial, insecticidal, and animal-repellent properties, as well as its appetite-stimulating, anti-inflammatory, and odor-masking effects (Gottardi et al., 2016). Furthermore, although scientific proof is still lacking, it was also expected to play a role as a herbal medicine for specific organs.

In particular, antioxidant and antibacterial properties are thought to have been important for improving the preservation of food and for embalming corpses. Antibacterial properties have been proven in 99 major spices, including pepper, chili peppers, cloves, nutmeg, and sansho pepper.

Such antibacterial effects may not have been particularly valued in the European and American countries during the Age of Discovery.

However, as Dutch-Asian trade progressed from the 17th to the 18th centuries, and as a result of the expansion of trade and competition among merchants and companies, the prices of many commodities began to converge between regions. Colonial goods such as spices, tea, and sugar also spread to the general households in Europe and America (De Zwart, 2016), and became commonly consumed by ordinary households.

In Japan, after the Meiji Restoration (1853), spices originating from South America, such as chili peppers, were added to the existing Asian spices.

At this stage, some people may have started to become aware of its antibacterial properties and health benefits.

Since then, scientific research has advanced, proving that it actually has functions such as antibacterial properties and health benefits, and it has once again attracted attention.

Thus, the role of spices has changed in complex ways depending on the region and era. While the theory that spices were consumed for their odor-masking or antibacterial properties during the "Age of Discovery" is rather weak, it's important to note that spices themselves do have those effects.

References

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De Zwart, P. 2016. Globalization in the early modern era: new evidence from the Dutch-Asiatic trade, c. 1600–1800. The Journal of Economic History 76(2): 520-558. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050716000553

Fattori, V., Hohmann, MS, Rossaneis, AC, Pinho-Ribeiro, FA, & Verri Jr, WA 2016. Capsaicin: current understanding of its mechanisms and therapy of pain and other pre-clinical and clinical uses. Molecules 21(7): 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21070844

Freedman, P. 2005. Spices and late-medieval European ideas of scarcity and value. Speculum 80(4): 1209-1227. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0038713400001391, https://gebeasley.org/famished/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/document-2-1.pdf

Garabadu, D., Shah, A., Ahmad, A., Joshi, VB, Saxena, B., Palit, G., & Krishnamurthy, S. 2011. Eugenol as an anti-stress agent: modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and brain monoaminergic systems in a rat model of stress. Stress 14(2): 145-155. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2010.521602

Gottardi, D., Bukvicki, D., Prasad, S., & Tyagi, AK 2016. Beneficial effects of spices in food preservation and safety. Frontiers in Microbiology 7: 186557. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01394

Hidayat, R., Wulandari, P., & Reagan, M. 2022. The potential of cinnamon extract (Cinnamomum burmanii) as anti-insomnia medication through hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis improvement in rats. Acta Medica Academica 51(2): 79-84. https://doi.org/10.5644/ama2006-124.375

Kim, CY, Seo, Y., Lee, C., Park, GH, & Jang, JH 2018. Neuroprotective effect and molecular mechanism of [6]-Gingerol against scopolamine-induced amnesia in C57BL/6 mice. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2018(1): 8941564. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8941564

Kulkarni, SK, & Dhir, A. 2010. An overview of curcumin in neurological disorders. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 72(2): 149-154. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.65012

Le Couteur, PC, & Burreson, J. 2003. Napoleon's buttons: How 17 molecules changed history. Tarcher, 384pp. ISBN: 9781585422203 [=2011. Spices, explosives, pharmaceuticals—17 chemical substances that changed world history. Chuokoron-Shinsha, Tokyo. 368pp. ISBN: 9784120043079]

Li, S., Wang, C., Li, W., Koike, K., Nikaido, T., & Wang, MW 2007. Antidepressant-like effects of piperine and its derivative, antiepilepsirine. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research 9(5): 421-430. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286020500384302

Miller, G. 2009. Spent: Sex, Evolution, and Consumer Behavior. Viking Adult, 384pp. ISBN: 9780670020621 [=2017. Consumer Capitalism! The Evolutionary Psychology of Show-offs. Keisou Shobo, 480pp. ISBN: 9784326299256]

Murphy, D. 2024, October 29. Did Medieval Kings Need Spice to Cover Up Rotten Food?. Youth in Food Systems. https://seeds.ca/schoolfoodgardens/13837-2/

Myers, D. 2006. Drummond's Rotten Meat: When Good Sources Go Bad. Medieval Cookery. https://www.medievalcookery.com/notes/drummond.pdf

Seneme, EF, Dos Santos, DC, Silva, EMR, Franco, YEM, & Longato, GB 2021. Pharmacological and therapeutic potential of myristicin: A literature review. Molecules 26(19): 5914. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26195914

Takahashi, YK, Nagayama, S., & Mori, K. 2004. Detection and masking of spoiled food smells by odor maps in the olfactory bulb. Journal of Neuroscience 24(40): 8690-8694. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2510-04.2004

Xu, J., Xu, H., Liu, Y., He, H., & Li, G. 2015. Vanillin-induced amelioration of depression-like behaviors in rats by modulating monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain. Psychiatry Research 225(3): 509-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.056

In short, Adlerian psychology can be described as "a psychology that fosters the ability to live in cooperation with others (community feeling) by choosing one's own life (self-determination), acting in accordance with one's purpose (teleology), and letting go of unnecessary control over others (separation of tasks)."

However, his psychology is buried among many self-help books, and many people may find it somewhat dubious. In fact, even in later generations, his ideas tend to be forgotten and are not quoted even when he says the same things.

Indeed, Adler's ideas are based more on a synthesization of his own clinical experience than on a series of scientific verifications. Furthermore, they address not only facts but also themes beyond the realm of science, such as "how should one live?", and thus have aspects that are closer to philosophy. In that sense, some argue that it is not science.

This article will examine the extent to which Adlerian fundamental factual concepts are accepted in evolutionary biology, psychology, behavioral economics, neuroscience, and brain science. It is based on Miller & Dillman (2016), with additional papers added. Citations of papers mentioned in Miller & Dillman (2016) will be omitted.

In conclusion, the general direction is the same, but there are some differences in our views on conflict and free will.

About Adler and Adlerian psychology

Alfred Adler was a psychologist born in 1870 and died in 1937. The mainstream of psychology during his time was based on the idea that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, traumas, and physiological factors)."

For example, Freud emphasized "unconscious desires" and "sexual impulses" as causes. Psychiatry, too, followed a style of "recording symptoms and classifying cause and effect," essentially relying on "accumulating facts." As Adler interacted with patients as a physician, he began to have serious doubts about this "causal explanationism." This is what is called "causal theory."

Adler began to question this. In his youth, he started as an ophthalmologist and internist, treating many patients with lung diseases and tuberculosis. One day, he noticed that even with the same disease, the degree of recovery varied greatly from patient to patient. "Why is it that only those with a 'will to live' recover, even though they have the same disease?" The realization that this could not be explained by mere "physical differences" became Adler's first turning point. In other words, the idea began to take root in him that "people are not passive beings, but rather choose their own way of life." This is what is called "teleology."

After becoming a psychiatrist, Adler developed this idea, applying it to emotions and behavior as well. He parted ways with Freud and founded what is now known as Adlerian psychology, or "individual psychology."

Adlerian psychology is remarkably progressive in that it emphasizes one's own life and individuality, while advocating for exploring connections with society by utilizing one's abilities. I believe it is a very important field of psychology and philosophy, alongside the early Buddhism of Gautama Siddhartha (Buddha/Shakyamuni) in northern India in the 6th century BC, and the Stoic philosophy that began with Zeno in ancient Greece in the early 3rd century BC and spread throughout ancient Greece and Rome, as it helps to let go of the Western notion of pursuing only individual happiness and the extreme Japanese notion of "the nail that sticks out gets hammered down."

Is there any scientific basis for the concept of "community feeling"?

One of the core beliefs in Adlerian psychology is the idea that individuals have an innate capacity for social concern.

In Adlerian psychology, this is called "social interest," and it represents the feeling of being a part of society—whether family, community, or workplace—and the desire to connect with others and contribute. This can range from a family-centered perspective to a global one.

In short, Adlerian psychology argues that this lack of a sense of community—that is, the lack of the feeling that "I am contributing to communities on various scales"—is largely related to feelings of anxiety, unhappiness, isolation, inferiority complexes, and self-centered behavior.

Has research in neuroscience also shown that a sense of community is important?

This view aligns with many neurobiological perspectives on happiness, as stated in the textbook "A Counselor's Introduction to Neuroscience" (McHenry et al., 2014), and several studies suggest that expressing compassion and kindness may enhance relationships and mental and physical health (Fredrickson et al., 2013; Poulin & Holman, 2013).

Oxytocin is a hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted from the posterior pituitary gland. It is also known as the "love hormone" and is released when we feel social connection or when we care for someone.

Oxytocin is thought to be the source of feelings of happiness that come from having a sense of community, but it has also been found that the secretion of oxytocin does more than that; it also repairs physiological damage induced by stress.

A study by Poulin & Holman (2013) found that people who engaged in prosocial behavior had higher levels of endogenous oxytocin and fewer negative symptoms of stress. The authors suggest that prosocial behavior may be a way for people to stimulate the release of oxytocin and mitigate the negative effects of stress, demonstrating that oxytocin mitigates the adverse health effects of stress.

Another study by Fredrickson et al. (2013) reported that individuals who reported having a higher purpose, being connected to their community, and serving others had lower levels of inflammatory markers, while those who reported more hedonic experiences had elevated levels of pro-inflammatory genes and decreased levels of antiviral response.

Aristotle distinguished between "hedonia," which is happiness that pursues short-term pleasures such as enjoyment, satisfaction, and positive emotions, and "eudaimonia," which is happiness that comes from finding meaning and purpose in life and achieving long-term rather than short-term fulfillment. Here, however, it is interpreted that those who found eudaimonia in a social context were healthier.

These findings suggest, from a physiological and neurological perspective, that having a strong sense of community and contributing to the happiness of others has significant benefits for one's own mental stability and physical health.

Adler also referred to Darwin's theory of evolution, arguing that while other animals evolved physical strength, humans adapted to their environment by forming social groups, and that this is connected to the importance of having a sense of community (Adler & Iwai, 2024).

This idea is also proposed in the form of the social brain hypothesis from the perspective of current evolutionary biology, and can be said to be largely correct (Pedersen et al., 2014; Dunbar, 2024).

Is there any scientific basis for "Adlerian interpersonal relationships"?

Adlerian interpersonal relationships emphasize the separation of tasks (clearly defining one's own responsibilities and those of others, focusing on one's own tasks, and refraining from interfering with others' tasks until requested), rejecting "vertical relationships" (hierarchical relationships) and emphasizing "horizontal relationships" (equal relationships). Encouragement (giving people facing difficulties the energy to overcome them and the confidence that they can do it) is also recommended.

This is somewhat similar to "assertiveness" (self-assertion that respects oneself and others), which originated in behavioral therapy in modern times.

Assertiveness is a communication method and attitude that respects oneself and others, and expresses one's opinions, requests, and feelings frankly, honestly, and on an equal footing. It is consistent with Adlerian interpersonal relationships in that it recommends direct language (a rejection of the "culture of unspoken understanding") and emphasizes equality.

While Adlerian interpersonal relationships themselves lack sufficient scientific validation, several studies have shown that assertiveness can reduce anxiety, stress, and depression (Cantero-Sánchez, 2021; ElBarazi et al., 2024).

Similar ideas are prominent in early Buddhism, Stoic philosophy, and early Christianity, emphasizing the importance of protecting oneself while also showing compassion and respect for others within the community (Bazzano, 2005; Goerger, 2017; Case, 2024).

Is there scientific evidence for the "uniqueness of early childhood experiences"?

Adlerian psychology considers early childhood experiences to be extremely important for the overall development of an individual's view of themselves, others, and the world (Adler, 1956).

Adler (1956) argued that while individuals are born with certain tendencies, the manifestation of specific traits and talents is caused by the community (the surrounding environment).

In other words, this can be rephrased as the idea that "childhood experiences are qualitatively more important than adult experiences and are deeply involved in establishing one's 'lifestyle'."

In Adlerian psychology, "lifestyle" refers to an individual's unique "unconscious blueprint" for living their life, which is a fusion of childhood experiences and the need for belonging. It consists of three elements: self-concept (I am...), worldview (the world is...), and self-ideal (I want to be...).

Therefore, counselors in the Adlerian psychology school try to understand a person's inner world by deeply examining their family structure, including cultural and familial values, expectations of gender roles, the nature of relationships within their birth family, and their psychological birth order.

What about from a neuroscience perspective?

Current brain development models suggest that early childhood experiences have a significant impact on an individual's awareness of themselves, others, and the world, and are thought to complement Adler's view on early childhood experiences (Andersen et al., 2008; McHenry et al., 2014; Perry, 2009; Siegel, 2012).

Brain development begins in the brainstem in the womb and progresses to the prefrontal cortex in early adulthood. Neurologists believe that the fundamental structures related to the brain's regulatory circuits, a key element in discussions of mental health, are primarily formed during the first five years of life (Andersen et al., 2008; Perry, 2009).

In this process, children often internalize the neural circuits of their closest caregivers during their early childhood. While individuals are born with certain genetic predispositions, environmental experiences significantly influence which genetic predispositions are expressed or suppressed through a process called "epigenetics" (Garrett, 2011; Siegel, 2012).

Epigenetics is a mechanism that controls gene function (expression) without changing the DNA base sequence itself. Beginners in biology or those who still hold onto outdated biological ideas tend to think that "behavior is rigidly determined by genes, although there are environmental constraints." However, current biology has proven that, through the action of epigenetics, "individuals have the potential to be either way, and specific genes can be expressed depending on the environment, leading to certain behaviors."

In other words, not only are directly inherited genes involved, but also the environment during childhood, which can influence genetic expression and have both positive and negative effects later in life.

For example, Fallon (2013) examined individuals who engaged in violent psychopathological behavior using brain scans. They found that the participants shared similar neural activity profiles and patterns, specifically "decreased brain function in certain parts of the frontal and temporal lobes, areas generally associated with self-control and empathy."

Up to this point, it could be said that the person has lost their sense of community due to a brain abnormality. In a sense, this is normal.

However, further investigation suggests that some individuals, due to poor upbringing environments, may exhibit neurological activity profiles similar to those of individuals with psychopathic tendencies, even without showing high levels of aggression or low levels of empathy.

In other words, as Adler hypothesized, this suggests the possibility that early childhood experiences influence genetic predispositions.

This is very close to the reality when you consider cases where children born in slums commit crimes or join gangs without realizing it, influenced by their parents and those around them, or cases where children of toxic parents become toxic parents themselves.

Furthermore, Adler's ideas closely align with another psychological concept, "attachment theory," to the point that it's almost a rephrasing of it.

Attachment theory, proposed by psychologist John Bowlby in his research from the 1960s to the 1970s, is a theory that states that the emotional bonds (attachment) that people form with others have a significant impact on their mental health and interpersonal relationships.

Attachment theory was groundbreaking in that it demonstrated that the mother-child relationship, as explained by Freud, is not established through the child learning that "she is the one who breastfed me (satisfaction of need)," but rather through an instinctive and innate mechanism by which the child seeks out their parent, similar to other monkeys.

However, this theory was completed not by directly referencing Adler's earlier work, but by drawing on clinical observations, comparative studies, and references to animal behavior.

Although this attachment theory is old, it is still widely accepted today, and many neuroscientists have shown that attachment is internalized as tacit memory, and that secure attachment is associated with neural structures that promote emotion regulation, fear regulation, harmony, insight, self-understanding, empathy, and morality (Schore & Schore, 2008; Siegel, 2012), while insecure attachment is associated with decreased emotional and social intelligence, executive function, and stress regulation (Perry, 2009).

As described above, Adler's ideas, which emphasized childhood experiences, are still supported today, albeit with some changes in terminology.

Are "teleology" and "the lies of life" correct?

Teleology, in contrast to causalism which states that "human behavior is determined by past causes (such as childhood experiences, trauma, or physiological factors)," is the idea that "people choose their actions and emotions in the present in order to achieve some purpose, and the past causes cited are merely conveniently brought into play to suit that purpose."

This is a point that is often misunderstood because it is only written to this extent in textbooks, but even so, Adler did not deny that genes and the past are the cause of the current situation (Adler and Iwai, 2024).

However, I'm saying that the choice of the cause is ultimately up to the individual.

We often hear people say, "I can't get married because I don't have money and I'm not good-looking," but considering the counterexample of many people around the world who are married despite not having money or good looks, it's clear that even if there is a tendency for this to be the sole cause, it's wrong to attribute it to that. Nevertheless, this kind of expression is often seen.

While abuse can be a cause of delinquency, some people who experience it go on to achieve great success without resorting to crime.

Adler argues that we can choose whether to move in a constructive or unconstructive direction. Adler called the act of not taking action by making plausible excuses a "life lie."

I believe the validity of teleology and the concept of lies in life, that is, the error of causal theory itself, can be easily proven by simply providing exceptions.

So why does the brain make excuses and tell "lies about life" when it should actually be taking action?

In modern terms, this can be seen as "self-deception" (a psychological process in which one deceives oneself to justify or ignore one's own conscience or the truth, even though one knows it) in order to resolve "cognitive dissonance" (psychological discomfort arising from the simultaneous existence of contradictory thoughts or actions in one's mind) in response to "procrastination" behavior caused by "anxiety."

While humans can certainly achieve happiness and survival by maintaining the status quo and avoiding harm or potential threats, maintaining the status quo can also lead to negative consequences (Yamamori et al., 2023).

For example, when going through a job interview, you need to weigh the benefit of getting a new job against the risk of failing or experiencing embarrassment during the interview. While turning down one interview may have little impact on your life, habitually avoiding all job interviews will clearly lead to problems in the long run.

Consistently avoiding long-term benefits for the sake of short-term risks is called "procrastination" in psychology and "present bias" in behavioral economics. As the total of the lost rewards that could have been obtained through diligent effort accumulates, it has an increasingly negative impact, ultimately leading to missing out on important things in life.

Evolutionary biology and behavioral economics have pointed out that this is because humans tend to underestimate future benefits of survival, which are uncertain in the course of evolution (time discounting), and overestimate the risks they may face in the present (Rogers, 1994; Tomono, 2006).

Furthermore, neuroscientifically speaking, mouse experiments have shown that this anxiety process involves excessive strengthening of the connections between the hippocampus/amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (excessive theta wave synchronization), leading to overactivity of interneurons such as VIP ⁺ neurons, PV ⁺ neurons, and SST ⁺ neurons (Mack et al, 2023).

In other words, evolutionarily, the control system of the prefrontal cortex is overly active, making one more susceptible to anxiety. This leads to overestimating current failures and risks (punishments) over future rewards (things one wants to do), causing procrastination. However, because one also understands the downsides, cognitive dissonance occurs, and to resolve this, one resorts to self-deception by telling "lies about life."

In ancient times, when uncertainty was high and death was imminent, this could be considered a highly adaptive evolutionary trait, as it encouraged cautious behavior and promoted the maintenance of the status quo. However, in modern times, where technology has advanced and the risks of action have decreased, it can no longer be considered adaptive (Rogers, 1994; Rasmussen & Dover, 2006; Villmoare et al., 2024).

Early Buddhism and Stoic philosophy also warn against overestimating risks due to "delusions" and "attachments" (Ding et al., 2023). The same is true for early Christianity.

Is there a right way to have courage?

Adler states that "courage" is necessary to overcome "life's lies."

In Adlerian psychology, "courage" refers to the very "vitality" and "motivation" to overcome difficulties and challenges and to take positive action when faced with them.

Adler didn't actually list methods for summoning courage, but based on his intent, the following methods can be considered:

1. Start with small actions
2. Reducing unnecessary anxiety by separating issues
3. Using feelings of inferiority as motivation for growth
4. Be mindful of contributing to others
5. Strengthening self-determination

Of these, the idea of "starting with small actions" is now called "Small Wins" and was rediscovered by Weick (1984).

Small wins are small, achievable successes accumulated day by day towards achieving a larger goal. Weick argues that by breaking down large, complex problems into "small, attainable parts" and accumulating small wins, momentum and support can be gained, making change more likely.

For example, if you're studying, it could be something like memorizing vocabulary for just 10 minutes a day.

This leads to a sense of self-efficacy through achievement, creating a positive cycle of hope, belief, optimism, and confidence, as well as providing feedback for better strategies through learning through practice (Termeer & Dewulf, 2019).

The importance of "just trying something, even if it's small, rather than thinking about a big plan" is still strongly supported today. Agile development, a software development methodology, is one example of this.

On the other hand, there is insufficient research to determine whether separating issues truly leads to anxiety reduction, but it intuitively seems correct.

The idea of separating tasks is almost identical to the concept expressed in Stoic philosophy (Delaney, 2023).

Are there any flaws in Adlerian psychology?

I think there are two main differences between Adlerian psychology and modern thinking.

Is it true that there is no conflict?

First, let's consider the concept of conflict. Adlerian psychology does not recognize conflict between consciousness and the unconscious. This is called holism.

This rejects the idea of "fighting against one's inner self," instead positing that internal conflict exists to achieve one's goals.

This interpretation is not very common in modern times; for example, in evolutionary psychology, the mind is often explained not as a unified entity but as being composed of separate parts (modules) divided according to their purpose. This is also recently referred to as domain specificity (Oda & Otsubo, 2023).

Another example is the "elephant and mahout" metaphor, proposed by Jonathan Haidt, a social psychologist famous for positive psychology (Haidt, 2006). The "elephant and mahout" metaphor is also used in the early Buddhist scripture , the Dhammapada.

"Elephant" refers to the part of the mind that is separate from consciousness and is involved in reactions to stimuli and the formation of motivations through pleasure and displeasure, while "elephant handler" refers to the part that deals with consciousness, language, and rational long-term judgment.

The idea is that the elephant's behavior is a result of the evolutionarily more primitive development of the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, midbrain, and diencephalon, and that these are the main players, while the elephant handler, represented by the cerebral cortex, plays a supporting role, only able to slightly control the direction. In reality, conflicts between different parts of the cerebral cortex are also possible.

However, this is a matter of interpretation. There is no doubt that the elephant and the mahout work together towards some direction (purpose), and I believe that taking a holistic view of life is beneficial in that it prevents unconstructive thinking such as "I suffered again today because of the elephant," and even if the mahout's role is small, it allows us to positively receive messages from different parts of the brain.

Does free will exist?

Next, Adlerian psychology is based on the premise that free will exists. Therefore, it believes that individuals can choose better, more constructive actions for themselves.

On the other hand, in modern times, the prevailing view is the absence of free will (determinism), which holds that all human psychology and behavior are determined by a combination of environmental and genetic factors.

While it might be possible to have a deep philosophical discussion about this, it seems that Adler wasn't interested in such philosophical debates, but rather in assuming the existence of free will and encouraging efforts to change the future.

In psychology, several studies have shown that experimentally giving participants anti-free will messages leads to increased cheating, increased aggression, decreased willingness to help, decreased readiness for exercise, and decreased self-control. While recent meta-analyses have suggested that this has a low impact (Genschow et al., 2023), it may be possible in limited situations.

Fundamentally, accurate prediction of the future is impossible because its initial conditions are unknown, and since it is undetermined, the fact that the future can be changed through learning remains unchanged even if free will does not exist.

Finally, it's important to note that Adler's arguments are about 100 years old, and therefore lack a comprehensive model of early childhood development, meaning they cannot fully explain all aspects of life by modern standards (Miller & Dillman, 2016).

References

Alfred Adler, translated by Toshinori Iwai. 2024. Adler's Words in a Superb Translation: Essential Edition. Discover Twenty-One, Tokyo. 229pp. ISBN: 9784799330104

Bazzano, M. 2005. To feel with the heart of another: Notes on Adler and Zen Buddhism. In P. Prina, A. Miller, C. Shelley, & K. John (Eds.), UK Adlerian Year Book 2005 (pp.42-54). The Adlerian Society UK Institute for Individual Psychology. https://manubazzano.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/adler-and-buddhism.pdf

Cantero-Sánchez, FJ, León-Rubio, JM, Vázquez-Morejón, R., & León-Pérez, JM 2021. Evaluation of an assertiveness training based on the social learning theory for occupational health, safety and environment occupational. Sustainability 13(20): 11504. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011504

Case, B. 2024. Love's Limits in Paul of Tarsus and Seneca the Younger. Religions 15(10): 1169. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101169

Delaney, B. 2023. Reasons not to worry: how to be Stoic in chaotic times. Harper, 304pp. ISBN: 9780063314825 [=2024. Philosophy for living peacefully: A way of thinking for living in stressful times, learned from Stoicism. Discover Twenty-One, Tokyo. 421pp. ISBN: 9784799330784]

Ding, X., Ma, Y., Yu, F., & Abadal, LM 2023. The therapy of desire in times of crisis: lessons learned from Buddhism and Stoicism. Religions 14(2): 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020237

Dunbar, RI 2024. The social brain hypothesis–thirty years on. Annals of Human Biology 51(1): 2359920. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2024.2359920

ElBarazi, AS, Mohamed, F., Mabrok, M., Adel, A., Abouelkheir, A., Ayman, R., … & Mohamed, F. 2024. Efficiency of assertiveness training on the stress, anxiety, and depression levels of college students (Randomized control trial). Journal of Education and Health Promotion 13(1): 203. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_264_23

Genschow, O., Cracco, E., Schneider, J., Protzko, J., Wisniewski, D., Brass, M., & Schooler, JW 2023. Manipulating belief in free will and its downstream consequences: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 27(1): 52-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683221087527

Goerger, M. 2017. Moral Practice in Late Stoicism and Buddhist Meditation. Comparative Philosophy 8(1): 7. https://doi.org/10.31979/2151-6014(2017).080107

Haidt, J. 2006. The happiness hypothesis: finding modern truth in ancient wisdom. Basic books, New York. 320pp. ISBN: 9780465028023 [=2011. The happiness hypothesis: ancient wisdom and modern scientific wisdom. Shin'yosha, Tokyo. 355pp. ISBN: 9784788512320]

Lavon, I., & Shifron, R. 2020. The use of early recollections in Adlerian psychotherapy: Evidence in neuroscience research. Psychology and Behavioral Science International Journal 15(2): 55590. http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/PBSIJ.2019.10.555908

Mack, NR, Deng, S., Yang, SS, Shu, Y., & Gao, WJ 2023. Prefrontal cortical control of anxiety: Recent advances. The Neuroscientist 29(4): 488-505. https://doi.org/10.1177/10738584211069071

Miller, R., & Dillman Taylor, D. 2016. Does Adlerian theory stand the test of time?: Examining individual psychology from a neuroscience perspective. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling 55(2): 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12028, https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=cifs_facpubs

Oda, Ryo & Otsubo, Yosuke. 2023. Expanding! Evolutionary Psychology. Asakura Shoten, Tokyo. 183pp. ISBN: 9784254523065

Pedersen, CA, Chang, SW, & Williams, CL 2014. Evolutionary perspectives on the role of oxytocin in human social behavior, social cognition and psychopathology. Brain Research 1580: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.07.033

Rasmussen, PR, & Dover, GJ 2006. The purposefulness of anxiety and depression: Adlerian and evolutionary views. The Journal of Individual Psychology 62(4): 366-396. ISSN: 1522-2527, https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-03417-003

Rogers, AR 1994. Evolution of time preference by natural selection. The American Economic Review 84(3): 460-481. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118062

Termeer, CJ, & Dewulf, A. 2019. A small wins framework to overcome the evaluation paradox of governing wicked problems. Policy and Society 38(2): 298-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14494035.2018.1497933

Tomono, Norio. 2006. Behavioral Economics: The Economy is Driven by "Emotions". Kobunsha, Tokyo. 397pp. ISBN: 9784334033545

Weick, KE 1984. Small wins: Redefining the scale of social problems. American Psychologist 39(1): 40-49. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.40

Villmoare, B., Klein, D., Liénard, P., & McHale, TS 2024. Evolutionary origins of temporal discounting: Modeling how time and uncertainty constrain optimal decision-making strategies across taxa. PloS One 19(11): e0310658. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310658

Yamamori, Y., Robinson, OJ, & Roiser, JP 2023. Approach-avoidance reinforcement learning as a translational and computational model of anxiety-related avoidance. Elife 12: RP87720. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.87720.4

When you take up listening to music, singing, or dancing as hobbies, you naturally become interested in rhythm and time signatures.

However, if we consider its origins, there are many aspects that we cannot answer. We often find ourselves moving to rhythms so naturally that we don't even question it, but this ability is actually very limited among living organisms, and it's fair to say that the ability to predict rhythm is unique to humans.

While there's no definitive answer as to the root cause of why that rhythm feels pleasant, one theory suggests that "walking" is deeply involved, and that it's also the origin of 2/4 and 4/4 time signatures. However, the concept of time signatures based on proper music theory itself only emerged in late medieval Europe with the birth of Baroque music.

The triple meter is considered unique and became widely used in 16th-century Austrian waltzes, supposedly because it matched movements that involved rotation.

This article will explain the origins of rhythm and time signatures (2/4, 4/4, and 3/4) from an evolutionary biological and historical perspective.

What is the origin of our sense of rhythm? Humans aren't the only ones who keep the beat!?

Rhythm is defined as "a phenomenon that repeats in a certain pattern that living beings can perceive."

The act of keeping rhythm is a phenomenon that is widely observed in organisms ranging from insects to monkeys, and there are examples such as the following (Iversen, 2016).

It's still unclear whether this sense of rhythm, from insects to humans, is due to genes that were common to all of them in evolutionary biology, but it seems that a certain degree of rhythmic sense is inherited.

What is the origin of the innate human sense of rhythm and the 2/4 time signature? Was the birth of walking the most important factor?

However, humans (and some birds) are thought to have developed a special sense of rhythm called "Rich BPS (Rich Beat Perception and Synchronization)" (Iversen, 2016).

Rich BPS consists of the following elements:

In short, it could be described as the ability to actively and predictively understand rhythm. It is currently believed that animals other than humans either lack this ability or possess it to a very limited extent.

So, what is considered to be the origin of Rich BPS and the 2/4 time signature?

Although there are various theories, walking is considered a very important factor (Iversen, 2016; Fitch, 2016).

For bipedal animals, the most energy-efficient form of walking is thought to be isochronic walking (walking with a constant period). Therefore, they move their left and right legs in a rhythmic manner.

It is believed that all humans, to varying degrees, instinctively acquire a sense of rhythm in order to grasp this sense of tempo.

There is a theory that the feeling of "pleasant rhythm" is an evolutionary by-product of "the motivation for infants to start walking."

Even adults sometimes feel a sense of comfort while taking a walk, which can be rephrased as finding the periodic vestibular and auditory inputs pleasant.

This theory suggests that the enjoyment of walking, stemming from periodic vestibular and auditory input, led to a preference for singing and dancing, which involve movements that stimulate the auditory and vestibular senses.

From another perspective, when bipedal animals walk in groups, if they can synchronize their walking rhythms, they may be able to quickly detect enemy groups, predators, or prey whose footsteps are not in sync. Furthermore, the size of the group can be concealed by layering sounds. This can also be considered a significant advantage of the evolution of Rich BPS.

In music theory, 2/4 time is monotonous because it consists only of strong and weak beats, and nowadays it is only used in marches, popular songs, and a few other genres, having largely given way to 4/4 time.

What is the origin of the 4/4 time signature?

4/4 time is a time signature with four beats per measure. It is similar to 2/4 time, but is generally distinguished by the fact that the strength of the beats progresses from strong to weak to medium-strong to weak. However, since the strength of the beats is not the sole definition of 4/4 time, it seems that the distinction is largely based on convention.

4/4 time, where a quarter note constitutes one beat, is the most widely used time signature in modern music and is used extensively in all genres, including rock, pop, dance music, classical, and jazz.

So, what do you think is the original origin of 4/4 time?

This is indeed considered to be walking (Fitch, 2016). However, the interpretation of walking changes slightly in this case.

When you're walking, you think of it as "sound of kicking with the right foot → sound of lifting the right foot → sound of kicking with the left foot → sound of lifting the left foot."

If we think about it this way, we get a time signature that follows the pattern of "strong beat → weak beat → strong beat → weak beat".

However, to the best of the author's knowledge, there are no papers that offer a clear explanation for the emergence of "mid-strong beats." While it's intuitively clear that the presence of "mid-strong beats" adds complexity and makes the music more enjoyable, it may remain a scientific mystery.

The "4/4 time signature" of "strong beat → weak beat → medium-strong beat → weak beat," based on modern music theory, is believed to have originated in the dance music of the early 17th century Baroque period, but its formation process is not well understood.

Even now, with the advent of DTM (Desktop Music) and the ability to reproduce any kind of music, the fact that even time signatures, along with the aforementioned 2/4 time signature, are still among the most widely used in pop music suggests that we instinctively prefer even time signatures, which resemble walking rhythms.

However, this approach alone cannot explain complex music that is not mainstream, such as music with irregular time signatures, groove, laid-back, push, offbeat, syncopation, and swing. While not mainstream, this music cannot be ignored and has achieved commercial success. While there's a strong sense that "being offbeat is more fun and comfortable," its biological origins remain a great mystery.

However, I also feel that these techniques are valuable when used in a partial manner.

What is the origin of the triple meter?

Triple time is a time signature with three beats per measure, consisting of a strong beat, a weak beat, and another weak beat. It is a time signature commonly used in Western dance music such as waltzes and minuets.

Typical time signatures include 3/4 time, where one beat is a quarter note, and 3/8 time, where two beats are eighth notes.

How did the triple meter come about?

While it may have originated even earlier, in Europe, mensural notation, which emerged in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, made it possible to accurately write the length of notes. It was then that, theoretically, triple time became possible.

In fact, the widespread use of triple time is believed to have originated in the waltz, at least in Europe (Fitch, 2016). There are various theories, but it is thought to have become popular in Europe around 1580 and developed from German and Austrian folk dances (Buurman, 2021). As a side note, the Japanese Wikipedia states that it was established in the 13th century, but there is no source for this, and there is no such statement in the English version.

In the Viennese waltz, a series of steps (step → turn → bring feet together) are interspersed between turns, with each "bringing feet together" action serving as a short break to prepare for the next step with the opposite foot. This creates a cycle of six steps, with both the right and left feet taking steps.

The unique aspect of this movement is that it involves rotation, and it is believed that a 3/4 time signature naturally becomes optimal when this action is involved.

Triple time can be considered a relatively new time signature, having emerged after the development of more relaxed dances.

What are some other theories about the evolution of rhythm?

There are several other theories regarding the evolution of rhythm, which I will introduce for reference (Iversen, 2016; Seki & Tachibana, 2023).

The Vocal Learning Hypothesis posits that a sense of rhythm evolved as a byproduct of the ability to imitate voices. This is supported by the fact that parrots and humans possess both the ability to imitate voices and a rich BPS (Beatman-Fetal Positioning System). However, this contradicts the fact that non-vocal mimicry animals (such as sea lions) also possess a sense of rhythm. This might simply be a pre-adaptation for acquiring neural circuits that convert auditory input into motor output.

The theory of sexual selection, proposed by the renowned evolutionary psychologist George Miller, suggests that musical ability was advantageous in mate selection. However, the fact that both sexes possess musical ability contradicts the typical theory of sexual selection. Nevertheless, since there are differences in musical preferences between men and women, it is possible that sexual selection occurred incidentally after the evolution of rhythmic sense.

The social bonding and group cooperation theory posits that rhythm evolved to promote group bonding and cooperative behavior. This seems natural when we consider the sense of unity we feel and the mosh pit we form at live concerts today. However, natural selection usually occurs among individuals or closely related groups, and this type of evolution falls under the category of "multilevel group selection," which is different from the usual pattern. This idea is not very popular in evolutionary biology because there is debate about its interpretation (although I think there is some truth to it). Moreover, it seems that rhythm is not the only thing that could promote bonding, so perhaps the sense of unity is a consequence of the evolution of rhythm.

The maladaptation theory (music being a byproduct) was proposed by the famous psychologist Steven Pinker, who argued that music is an "auditory cheesecake," a pleasure-seeking technique, and not an evolutionary adaptation. While it's true that modern, pleasant music might be like a cheesecake, the very sense of rhythm itself seems to be an evolutionary product.

Currently, the prevailing view seems to me that the fundamental sense of rhythm evolved in conjunction with walking, but this may change depending on future research.

References

Buurman, E. 2021. Early Viennese Waltz Dances. In: E. Buurman (Ed.), The Viennese Ballroom in the Age of Beethoven (pp. 32-54). Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781108797856, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108863278.003

Fitch, WT 2016. Dance, music, meter and groove: a forgotten partnership. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10: 64. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00064

Iversen, JR 2016. 21 In the beginning was the beat: evolutionary origins of musical rhythm in humans. In: R. Hartenberger (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Percussion (pp. 281-295). Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781107472433, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316145074.022

Seki, Yoshimasa & Tachibana, Ryosuke. 2023. Animal rhythm synchronization ability and its origins. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Japan 80(1): 33-40. https://doi.org/10.20697/jasj.80.1_33

Hello everyone, are you aware that there is an app called " Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History" that contains all the questions from the book " Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History" ?

Yamakawa Q&A World History

Developer:Imagineer Co., Ltd.

¥610

poster withAppReach

I recently purchased and started playing this app, so I'll share my current impressions.

In conclusion, although there are some drawbacks, I find it very convenient and continue to use it.

This article is intended to be helpful for those wondering whether a world history Q&A app is actually useful.

This review is written from a working professional's perspective, so it may not be suitable for students. Also, the author uses the Android version and this review is based solely on that version.

History is a discipline closely related to biology.

History, depending on how you interpret it, can be considered "the ecology of humankind."

For example, in the field of "evolutionary psychology," there is a discipline that considers the natural environment of Africa where humans evolved and examines the genetic basis of human behavior and psychology.

Furthermore, Jared Diamond's famous book , "Guns, Germs, and Steel," examines the differences in the development of civilizations due to differences in resources in human habitats. This can be said to be an examination of environmentally-influenced human behavior and psychology.

In that sense, as someone who has studied biology for a long time, I find it very interesting to read.

My history of studying world history

That's why I've recently started studying world history in earnest, trying to memorize it.

I've always liked history, but in high school I was in the science stream and didn't have the opportunity to study it systematically...

During my university days, I had the freedom to study as I pleased, and I remember neglecting biology and devouring books on ancient and modern history.

I studied prehistory quite obsessively. I can recite all of them from memory: Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, Denisovans, Homo floresiensis (laughs). This area is mostly biology, though.

Learn all the items from YouTube videos

It was during my graduate school days that I came across the YouTube channel "Historia Mundi," and I was blown away. You could watch lectures on all topics in world history and Japanese history for free.

Historia Mundi channel is here

Geography has now been added to the curriculum. When I was a student, I was engrossed in it, and I went through Japanese history once and world history twice.

This channel is truly great and provides learning opportunities for everyone.

Output is necessary for true memorization.

However, no matter how interesting a story you hear and how much information you absorb, output is essential for truly remembering it.

There are several ways to output information. Initially, I used a question-and-answer format in a book, but I felt that there were several aspects that didn't suit me.

Reasons why I found the Q&A format in books difficult to use

The book I purchased was "Yamakawa's Q&A World History."

I never took World History B in high school, but I have the impression that the book "Yamakawa One Question and Answer World History" is a standard textbook in the world of entrance exams. After all, it's a problem set from the publisher that produces the most famous textbooks.

The well-known website in the exam preparation industry , "Takeda Juku's Reversal of Fortune Passing.com," describes it as follows:

"Yamakawa World History Q&A" is a problem set for those who want to score well on entrance exams ranging from national universities to Waseda and Keio Universities, or for those who will be taking national or public university entrance exams that include essay questions.

"Yamakawa World History Q&A" is based on textbook content but is relatively voluminous. The explanations for the answers are thorough, making it suitable for preparing for the second-stage entrance exams of national and public universities, which often include descriptive and essay questions.

『Gyakuten Gokaku.com』

As a counterpoint, Toshin's "World History B: Question and Answer" seems to be quite well-known. I haven't used this one myself, but Yamakawa's version has a very simple layout and uses a lot of formal language, so Toshin's version might be a bit softer and easier to approach.

However, due to my own personality, I found these paper-based question-and-answer formats difficult to use. These can be broadly categorized into the following three points.

• Easy to give up
• Moving my eyes is difficult.
• Difficult to access immediately when out and about

Easy to give up

With a paper-based question-and-answer format, it's obvious, but there's a long list of questions. For me, this tends to make me feel overwhelmed.

I often found myself feeling overwhelmed, thinking, "Even after putting in a little effort, there are still so many problems..." I would just flip through the pages and skim through them, thinking I had done something, but in reality, I hadn't really grasped the material.

If I were a student, I might have tackled it even if it meant clinging to a rock (laughs).

I have a habit of making it difficult to concentrate because when I see a single word, it triggers all sorts of associations.

Moving my eyes is difficult.

This is obvious, but with books, you need to open the pages from left to right and move your eyes from top to bottom. However, it's difficult to follow small print for extended periods...

Furthermore, the question-and-answer format sometimes assumed that the reader would refer to the previous question, which often led to confusion about where I had left off and a loss of concentration.

Difficult to access immediately when out and about

Question-and-answer style materials are definitely something you'd want to use while traveling on trains or other public transport. However, taking a book out and putting it back in during transfers can be a hassle...

It would be great if I had a handbag, but there are times when I don't have one. I found this quite annoying.

I downloaded the app version of Yamakawa's Q&A World History book.

I've always been good at studying using computers and smartphones, so I was looking for an app to study with... and I found the app version of "Yamakawa One Question, One Answer World History" ! It was perfect.

Yamakawa Q&A World History

Developer:Imagineer Co., Ltd.

¥610

poster withAppReach

[Number of questions included]

Approximately 4,700 questions (16 chapters in total)

⇒This covers important historical terms related to people, politics, economics, religion, art, literature, and more.

[Convenient Features]

1) It features two modes: a "multiple-choice mode" where you select an answer from four options, and a "single-question, single-answer mode" that tests your memory.

2) Your grades will be recorded automatically.

3) Even if you interrupt the game midway, you can continue playing from where you left off.

4) You can select questions from "All," "Unanswered," "Incorrect," "Correct," and "★Checked (Questions individually checked by the user)." This allows you to focus on studying areas you struggle with.

5) The problems are set to three difficulty levels, and you can choose according to the difficulty level.

Google Play

The price is 600 yen, which is cheaper than a book.

While there isn't a detailed explanation of the content, it appears that this app is a port of the book version, released in almost the same format.

How to Use Yamakawa's Q&A World History

It's extremely easy to use. After downloading, you can start working on your problems immediately after making a few settings, such as turning the sound on or off.

The problems can be solved at any level, including chapters, sections, and sub-items.

Tapping an item in any unit will display "Settings" and "Learning".

setting

In "Settings," you can select "Problem extraction criteria," "Difficulty level," and "Random question presentation on/off."

The "Problem Extraction Criteria" allows you to extract problems based on your past correct answer history. I don't use this much for review because I forget even the problems I answered correctly very quickly.

The "difficulty level" can be freely selected from levels 1-3, which are pre-set for each question. I don't set it because I want to understand everything, but I think there may be situations where it's useful depending on the difficulty level of the exam.

The "Random Question Presentation On/Off" feature allows you to randomize the order in which questions are presented within a unit. This is something that cannot be done in books, making it a very convenient and highly recommended feature.

study

In "Learning," you can actually work on problems. There are two modes.

In "4-choice mode," a question is presented, and the user selects from four options set by the app. The order of the four options is randomly changed, preventing the problem of memorizing the order by location.

In "Question and Answer Mode," only the question is displayed, and you answer it verbally yourself. If your answer is correct, it is marked as correct. This aspect is a little ambiguous, but if it were an input-only format, it would be impossible to handle variations in notation, so this is probably unavoidable. Also, inputting kanji would be difficult in Asian history.

Select your preferred mode and the game will begin. While the basic gameplay involves simply solving problems, you can also save favorites, view explanations, and go back or skip questions.

After completing the test, your accuracy rate is displayed, which helps with motivation. I repeat the process until I reach 100%.

When it reaches 100%, a crown icon will appear to the left of the unit on the home screen.

Advantages of the app version of "Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History"

The advantages of this app are the inverse of the disadvantages of the book version.

• Because you can focus on the problem in front of you, you are less likely to get discouraged.
• Less eye movement is required.
• Can be taken out and solved instantly while out and about.

Less likely to give up

Unlike books, I feel less likely to give up because I can concentrate on the problem in front of me. This might be due to my personality, though.

Less eye movement is required.

Having to move your eyes less is very helpful because it means you don't have to expend energy on anything other than memorizing the problems.

Can be taken out and solved instantly while out and about.

This aspect is really convenient. You can easily get started even if you have to make many transfers on the train, or during short breaks like waiting at traffic lights.

The problem can be solved randomly.

This wasn't a drawback of the book, but I noticed it when I tried the app version. The question-and-answer format is designed with flow in mind, so memorizing the questions in order is important, but the option to use randomness to train yourself to answer quickly was a new feature.

Disadvantages of the app version of "Yamakawa One-Question-One-Answer World History"

While it doesn't have many critical bugs, it's a fairly simple app, so there are a few things I'm not entirely happy with.

The 4-choice mode includes an obvious correct answer.

Sometimes, the correct answer is obvious because the multiple-choice questions include terms like "treaty" and "conference," which should have been omitted. While this isn't the case for most questions, I wish this had been corrected.

You cannot stop the response midway.

Since you can't stop midway through answering, if you stop the app or leave it for too long, the app will reset due to Android's specifications, and you'll have to start all over again. Although the accuracy rate up to a certain point is saved, there are cases where there are many questions even when divided into sub-sections, so it's stressful to have to solve it all in one go.

Google Play says, "Even if you interrupt your gameplay, you can continue playing from where you left off." But how do I do that...?

It is not possible to display questions randomly from all available questions.

One of the advantages of this app is the ability to randomly display and solve problems, but it's not possible to solve problems from the entire range of material. While it would be interesting to test your skills by having problems randomly displayed from the entire range, such a mode doesn't exist. However, it is possible at the chapter level.

Is the explanation too brief?

The explanations are very brief, and many questions don't have explanations at all. In the multiple-choice mode, various terms appear together, and it would be nice to hear explanations for those as well, but you can only hear explanations for the correct answer. This is a bit disappointing.

How will the data be transferred?

I haven't tried it myself yet, but it seems like there's a possibility that data might be lost if you change your smartphone device. There's no export function or anything like that, so it seems like there's nothing the app can do about it. However, I've had data transferred successfully with other apps, so it might be possible on Android in some cases (unverified).

[Updated 2023-12-13] I recently tested this and downloaded the app on a different device, and the progress was saved. However, I haven't yet verified whether synchronization is possible.

summary

In summary, while there are several drawbacks, the ability to solve problems via a smartphone app is undeniably convenient. I plan to continue using it repeatedly to assess how well I'm retaining the terminology.

Similarly, apps based on books are available for subjects like Japanese history and English, but there are fewer of them for geography and science.

While there are many app-based problem sets available, the reality is that many of them lack guaranteed quality because the problems are original.

Even after becoming a working adult, there are times when I feel like I want to study again, so I would be happy if similar workbooks based on books were sold!