Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Ophiopogon in the family Asparagaceae (formerly Asparagaceae), and are often found growing creeping along the ground in forests. Their most striking feature is the dark blue seeds they bear, which are easily mistaken for fruits. However, the four species are quite similar and can be difficult to distinguish. The most important factor to consider is the width of the leaves, which can be used to broadly differentiate Ophiopogon sieboldii and Ophiopogon orchid. Other important factors include the length of the flower stalks, the length of the leaves, and the presence or absence of stolons. However, distinguishing between Ophiopogon japonicus and Ophiopogon longifolius can sometimes be difficult. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Ophiopogon.

What are Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid?

Ophiopogon japonicus var. japonicus, also known as "snake's beard," is an evergreen perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Korea, China, and Taiwan, growing under evergreen broad-leaved forests and in grasslands (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

Ophiopogon japonicus var. umbrosus, also known as long-leaved snake's beard, is an evergreen perennial herb distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; southern Korea; and China, growing on the forest floor and forest edges.

Ophiopogon planiscapus, also known as large-leaved snake's beard, is an evergreen perennial herb that grows on the forest floor and is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan.

Ophiopogon jaburan, also known as Noshiran, is an evergreen perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of Tokai), Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan, as well as in Korea (Jeju Island), growing in the undergrowth of forests near the sea.

Both belong to the genus Ophiopogon in the family Asparagaceae (formerly known as the family Asparagaceae), and are evergreen perennial herbs that can be seen growing creeping along the ground in forests. They are popular for landscaping and as ornamental plants, and are often seen in urban areas as well.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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Morphologically, its most striking feature is its dark blue seeds. They are quite noticeable when walking through the forest. It can be distinguished from its close relative, the Liriope genus, which has purplish-black seeds. These blue seeds are often mistakenly identified as fruits and incorrectly presented on gardening websites, but in the Ophiopogon and Liriope genera, the pericarp detaches before ripening, leaving only the seeds. These blue seeds are conspicuous in the dark forest floor and are known to be eaten by birds such as bulbuls, thus aiding in seed dispersal (Ueda and Noma, 1999).

However, many species in the genus Liriope are quite similar, and it can often be difficult to distinguish between them.

What are the differences between Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid?

We will examine the differences between four species: Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon japonicus (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, while the leaves of Ophiopogon japonicus are 10-15 mm wide and the flower stalks are 1-2 cm long, there is a difference in that the leaves of Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, and Ophiopogon sieboldii are 2-8 mm wide and the flower stalks are 4-10 mm long.

These two points will give you the impression that *Ophiopogon japonicus* is quite different from the other three species.

Regarding the remaining three species, there is a difference in that the leaves of Ophiopogon japonicus are 4-8 mm wide, while those of Ophiopogon japonicus and Ophiopogon longifolius are 2-4 mm wide.

What is the difference between Ophiopogon japonicus and Ophiopogon longifolius?

The most difficult thing is distinguishing between Ophiopogon japonicus and Ophiopogon longifolius.

Basically, the difference between Ophiopogon japonicus and Ophiopogon spp. is that Ophiopogon japonicus has leaves that are 10-20 cm long and its rhizomes usually extend as stolons, while Ophiopogon spp. longifolius has leaves that are 20-40 cm long, its rhizomes grow in clusters, and it produces stolons.

First, I recommend checking the length of the leaves. However, the rhizome is difficult to see and is often not recorded unless you consciously make an effort to do so, and since there are also small individuals, you may not always be able to make a confident judgment.

Another important difference is their appearance. In Ophiopogon japonicus, the base of the leaves is in close contact with the ground, and the plants grow densely together as they propagate by sprouting from stolons. In contrast, in Ophiopogon longifolius, the base of the stem stands upright, and since it primarily propagates by seeds, the plants can grow in isolation.

In addition, there is another difference: the leaves of Ophiopogon japonicus are thicker, measuring 2-4 mm in width, while those of Ophiopogon longifolius are thinner, measuring 1.5-2.5 mm in width. However, this should only be considered as a reference.

Regarding habitat, Ophiopogon japonicus often grows in clusters in sunny areas, while Ophiopogon longifolius often grows in clusters in shady areas.

I'd like to say that this makes a definitive determination, but unfortunately, there is a known variety of Ophiopogon japonicus called Ophiopogon caespitosus var. caespitosus, and unlike Ophiopogon japonicus var. caespitosus, this variety has rhizomes that grow in clusters and does not produce stolons.

The difference between Ophiopogon japonicus and Ophiopogon longifolius is that in Ophiopogon japonicus, the leaves are 10-20 cm long and the pedicels are 3-4 mm long, while in Ophiopogon longifolius, the leaves are the same length, but the pedicels are 5-10 mm long.

While wild specimens of Ophiopogon japonicus are currently only known to exist in Chiba Prefecture and are not typically seen in the wild, it's worth noting that there's a possibility they could be found in undiscovered areas or in horticultural populations.

Note that British research institutions do not specifically distinguish between the two varieties (RBG Kew, 2024).

Are there any other similar species? What are the differences between this and Ophiopogon japonicus or Liriope muscari?

Ophiopogon japonicus var. japonicus f. nanus, also known as Tamaryu (Japanese dwarf mondo grass), is a variety of Ophiopogon with shorter leaves, measuring 5-15 cm in length.

Flowers of the Ophiopogon genus exhibit variation; while they are generally pale purple, they are often white, and these are called white-flowered Ophiopogon f. leucanthus, white-flowered long-leaved Ophiopogon f. leucanthus, and white-flowered large-leaved Ophiopogon f. leucanthus, respectively.

Liriope, which includes Liriope muscari, is taxonomically quite closely related, and its leaves are very similar, and you'll often find that its flowers, depending on the color, are also quite similar.

However, there are differences between the Ophiopogon genus, which includes Ophiopogon, and the Liriope genus, which includes Liriope muscari, in that the ovary is semi-inferior, the filaments are very short, the anthers are pointed, and the seeds ripen to a dark blue color.

For information on the differences between species in the Liriope genus, please see our separate article.

What are the differences between Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the family Asparagaceae, growing in forests. They are cultivated as ornamental plants and are often confused with each other due to their similar-looking flowers and leaves. Distinguishing between them is difficult, but recording the leaf width, number of flowers, and flower stalk length can help...

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References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

RBG Kew. 2024. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Ueda, Keisuke & Noma, Naohiko. 1999. What carries "grass seeds" in the forest? In: Ueda, Keisuke (Ed.), Seed Dispersal: The Evolution of Mutual Aid Vol. 1 Seeds Carried by Birds (pp. 76-85). Tsukiji Shokan. ISBN: 9784806711926

Asparagus, Japanese asparagus, and Chinese asparagus are all perennial herbs belonging to the genus Asparagus in the family Asparagaceae. Their most distinctive feature is the clusters of very thin, spine-like "leaf-like" structures. In reality, these are modified "branches" (called cladodes), and the true leaves are small and vestigial. Asparagus is a very common vegetable, but it can also become naturalized and may be confused with the other two native species. These three species can be distinguished mainly by examining the cladodes. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Asparagus.

What are Asparagus, Asparagus, and Kusasugikazura?

Asparagus schoberioides, also known as pheasant-hiding flower, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan; as well as in Korea, China, Mongolia, and Russia, growing in grasslands and bright forests from hills to mountains.

Asparagus officinalis, commonly known as Dutch asparagus, is a perennial plant native to Europe, West Asia, and Central Asia. It is cultivated worldwide, including in Japan, for ornamental purposes or as a vegetable for food, and some have escaped cultivation and become naturalized (RBG Kew, 2024).

Asparagus cochinchinensis var. lucidus, also known as Tenmondou, is a climbing perennial herb distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, as well as in Korea, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia, growing in coastal forest edges and rocky areas.

All of these are perennial herbs belonging to the Asparagaceae family (Asparagaceae) and the Asparagus genus, and their most distinctive feature is the clusters of very thin, spine-like "leaves."

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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However, botanically speaking, what appears to be "leaves" on plants of the Asparagus genus are actually "twigs" called "cladulate branches (pseudoleaves)." The true "leaves" are broadly ovate and membranous structures that remain at the base of the cladulate branches and are called "scale leaves (hakama)."

Of the three types, asparagus is used for its young shoots that emerge from the third year after planting the seedlings. Due to its unique flavor, it has been used as a vegetable, and also as medicine due to its diuretic and aphrodisiac properties.

Aspartic acid (named after asparagus, one of the umami components, and acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system in humans), as well as other notable nutrients such as vitamins, folic acid, and rutin, are among the vegetables that contain these nutrients.

Historically, it was already depicted as an offering in friezes (part of architectural decoration) from the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (3000 BC). There are also records of it being eaten by the ancient Romans and Greeks. In Japan, it was introduced by Dutch ships during the Edo period (after 1781) and cultivated for ornamental purposes, but it was not until the Meiji era (1871) that it was introduced by the Hokkaido Development Commission that it was used as food.

Asparagus is a plant that is very familiar to humankind, and it has become naturalized in Japan, sometimes being confused with native Japanese species such as Asparagus japonica and Asparagus serrata.

What are the differences between Asparagus, Asparagus japonica, and Asparagus serrata?

These three species can first be broadly classified into Asparagus japonica and Asparagus humilis (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

In contrast to Asparagus and Asparagus, the main stem is erect, with 3 to 8 leaf-like branches growing in clusters and lacking ridges (three-dimensionally protruding corners), whereas Asparagus has a creeping main stem, with 1 to 3 leaf-like branches growing in clusters and possessing three ridges.

If you can see only one leaf-like branch on the main stem, it can be identified as Asparagus jasminoides.

Regarding Asparagus and Asparagus, the difference lies in the fact that Asparagus has 3 to 7 leaf-like branches that grow in clusters, are curved and flat in a sickle shape, while Asparagus has 5 to 8 leaf-like branches that grow in clusters, are straight and slender.

Note that the characteristic of "flattened, sickle-shaped leaflets" is also present in Asparagus jasminoides, so be aware of that.

Regarding the flowers, asparagus and rhododendron have bell-shaped flowers, while rhododendron has open petals, which is another difference.

While there are many other species of the Asparagus genus known as ornamental horticultural varieties, we will omit them here due to their large number.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

RBG Kew. 2024. The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. Plants of the World Online. http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/

Muscari, grape muscari, and blue muscari are all perennial plants belonging to the genus Muscari in the family Asparagaceae (formerly Asparagaceae). In early spring, from March to April, they produce numerous blue, urn-shaped flowers that hang downwards in racemes, and their cuteness makes them very popular as ornamental plants in gardens. However, in Japan, there are few proper descriptions of how to distinguish between different species of Muscari, which seems to cause confusion. A botanical guide from the United States describes how to distinguish them, and according to it, they can be distinguished by checking the number of flowers per inflorescence and the color of the flowers. This article will explain the classification and morphology of the genus Muscari.

What are Muscari, Grape Muscari, and Blue Muscari?

Muscari neglectum, also known as grape hyacinth, is a perennial plant distributed along the Mediterranean coast of Europe, North Africa, West Asia, and the Caucasus, growing in roadsides, fields, forests, and abandoned gardens. It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes, including in Japan, and has become naturalized in places like the UK and North America.

Grape muscari (Muscari armeniacum), also known as large grape muscari, muscari armeniacum, or muscari armeniacum, is a perennial plant distributed in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, the Caucasus, and Turkey. It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes, including in Japan, and has become naturalized in Western Europe and North America.

Muscari botryoides, also known as blue muscari, is a perennial plant distributed throughout Europe, from France to Ukraine, growing in roadsides, fields, forests, and abandoned gardens. It is cultivated worldwide for ornamental purposes, including in Japan, and has become naturalized in places like the UK and North America.

All of these are perennial plants belonging to the Muscari genus of the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family). In early spring, from March to April, they produce numerous blue, urn-shaped flowers that hang downwards in racemes. Perhaps because of their cute appearance, they are very popular as ornamental plants in gardens. It would not be an exaggeration to say that you are bound to see them in gardens and other places when walking around town.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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However, when it comes to muscari species, there are few resources in Japan that properly describe how to distinguish between different types, and even when searching for overseas photos using Google Image Search, many of them are incorrect. The Japanese Wikipedia also seems to contain errors. There is little accurate information available on how to distinguish between muscari species, which may be causing many people trouble.

What are the differences between Muscari, Grape Muscari, and Blue Muscari?

The American botanical guide notes that there are relatively clear differences between these three species (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2002).

First, regarding the flowers that grow in racemes, there is a difference between Muscari and Grape Muscari, which have 20 to 40 flowers, and Blue Muscari, which has 12 to 20 flowers.

In short, Muscari and grape muscari have more flowers. This is also the origin of the name "grape muscari," likely because the inflorescence resembles a bunch of grapes.

Furthermore, there is a difference in the leaves: while Muscari and grape Muscari have leaves that are 2-4 mm wide, blue Muscari has leaves that are 3-8 mm wide. In short, blue Muscari generally has slightly thicker leaves.

While distinguishing between Muscari species is relatively easy, the differences between Muscari and Muscari rupestris are said to be minimal, mainly just the color of the corolla.

Specifically, while the corolla of Muscari is a dark blue, that of Grape Muscari is a beautiful blue to sky blue. In horticultural varieties, Grape Muscari can also be white.

Because the main difference is color, distinguishing them using dried specimens is considered difficult.

In Japan, I rarely see true "muscari," and I believe that most of them are either grape muscari or blue muscari.

Are there any other similar varieties? What's the difference between this and lavender?

While many other species of the Muscari genus are known, they are rare in Japan, so I will omit them.

The species known as "feathered muscari" (Muscari comosum), also called Muscari comosum, has very long flower stalks at the top of its inflorescence, resembling the "feathers" used in the Japanese game of battledore and shuttlecock, and is rarely confused with the three species mentioned above.

Google searches often include questions about the difference between lavender and muscari. While it's true that lavender, like muscari, produces blue inflorescences, it belongs to the mint family, has hairy and fragrant leaves, and its corollas face upwards. These differences make it difficult to find common ground. Please compare it to the photos in the other article.

What are the differences between English lavender, French lavender, and Dentata lavender? How to distinguish between similar varieties! What are the effects of their essential oils? Why are there buds mixed in with the flowers? Were the seeds dispersed by sheep?!

Lavender is extremely popular in gardening, known for its purple flowers and renowned for its medicinal properties. However, few articles properly explain the differences between various types of lavender. The visual differences in lavender are not simply variations in "cultivar," but rather entirely different species. Here are three representative types...

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References

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2002. Flora of North America (Vol. 26 Liliidae). Oxford University Press, ‎Oxford. 752pp. ISBN: 9780195152081

Agave, agave, yucca, and agave plants all belong to the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family). They are large plants that can grow to the height of a child or adult, and are characterized by their monocotyledonous leaves with parallel veins. Due to their impressive size and drought tolerance, they are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants in Japan. However, their many names can be confusing. Agave is a general term that includes several species such as agave and agave, while yucca is a general term that includes several species such as yucca. Agave and yucca are distinguished by the shape of their flowers. The only difference between agave and agave is the color. Agave is sometimes called the "plant of the century" and is said to be the raw material for tequila, but these are not entirely factual. This article will explain the classification, ecology, and culture of agave.

What are Agave, Agave serrata, Yucca, and Yucca?

Agave americana subsp. americana, also known as the blue agave, is native to Mexico and Texas in the United States. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide, including in Japan, and has naturalized in some countries. This evergreen perennial thrives in hot climates and drought-prone areas. It is also used for fiber and as a raw material for fermented alcoholic beverages (pulque octori) and distilled spirits (mezcal).

Agave americana 'Marginata' is a cultivated variety of Agave americana. It is grown for ornamental purposes all over the world, including Japan.

Agave is a general term for plants belonging to the genus Agave (Agave genus), and in addition to the two species mentioned above, it also includes Agave stricta and Agave victorae-reginae.

Yucca gloriosa var. recurvifolia, also known as Kimigayo Orchid, is a variety of Yucca gloriosa var. gloriosa and is an evergreen shrub native to the southeastern United States. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide, including in Japan.

Yucca is a general term for plants belonging to the genus Yucca (also known as the genus Yucca), and includes the two species mentioned above, as well as Yucca flaccida and Yucca aloifolia. Another name for it is "Youth Tree."

All of these plants belong to the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family), and are characterized by their large size, sometimes reaching the height of a child or adult, and their monocotyledonous leaves with parallel veins. Due to their impressive appearance and drought tolerance, they are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants in Japan.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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However, these terms seem to be sometimes confused on the internet. Some websites mistakenly refer to Yucca glauca as Agave.

Although both agave and Yucca have "ran" in their names, they do not belong to the orchid family. Orchids have showy "orchid-shaped corollas" in which petals and sepals are cleverly combined, but these flowers do not have that shape.

What is the difference between agave and yucca?

As mentioned above, "agave" refers to several types of plants, including the Japanese agave (agave americana), while "yucca" refers to several types of plants, including the Japanese yucca (Yucca glauca).

So, what are the differences between agave and yucca?

The difference between the species listed here is between Agave americana, Agave serrata, and Yucca glauca.

A key difference in classification is that agaves produce upward-facing flowers only once every few decades per plant, and these flowers consist only of short, green perianth segments (where the distinction between petals and sepals is unclear), whereas yucca plants produce downward-facing flowers irregularly every year from May to October, and these flowers have large, white perianth segments (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2002).

This difference is largely due to the pollination ecology in their original habitats, specifically the types of animals that carry pollen for pollination.

Agave plants are generally pollinated by nocturnal bats, which provide nectar and pollen to bats at night, allowing the bats to carry the pollen to other plants (Trejo-Salazar et al., 2016; Eguiarte et al., 2021). Therefore, they lack prominent perianth segments, an adaptation for bats which do not rely on their vision at night. However, there are rare species, such as Agave americana, that are also visited by diurnal hummingbirds (Knudsen & Tollsten, 1995).

On the other hand, yucca is pollinated by insects, and only specific moths called yucca moths visit each species (Kawakita, 2012; Ishii, 2020). The female moth lays her eggs on the pistil of the yucca, which serve as food for her larvae, and in return, she uses her antennae to scrape pollen out of the yucca and carry it away. For this reason, the perianth segments of the yucca are white and downward-facing to make them conspicuous to the moths and allow them to burrow in. This relationship is known to have an almost one-to-one correspondence between each yucca species and the moths that visit, and is called "obligate pollination symbiosis."

Considering these significant ecological differences, it becomes clear that although they may seem similar, they are entirely different species.

Furthermore, while agave stems are very short or indistinct and give the impression of being almost entirely made up of leaves, yucca forms a trunk covered in leaves.

In the case of Agave, Agave americana, and Yucca glauca, the leaves are completely different. Agave leaves are wide, fleshy, and spiny, while Yucca leaves are narrow, thin, and spineless.

What is the difference between Agave and Agave americana?

What are the differences between Agave and Agave americana?

Actually, as you can see from the scientific name, "agave" is a cultivated variety of "Agave americana." Therefore, you can assume that their basic form and ecology are exactly the same.

While the scientific name is derived from "Ao-no-ryūzetsuran" (blue ryūze), the Japanese name is derived from "ryūzetsuran" (blue ryūzetsuran), so note that the order of naming is reversed. This means that Ao-no-ryūzetsuran is actually the original, wild type. A misunderstanding likely arose during the process of its introduction to Japan.

The main difference is that the leaves of Agave japonica have white variegation along the edges, while those of Agave americana are uniformly bluish-green without this characteristic.

Everything else is exactly the same.

Is it a myth that agave plants live for 100 years? Why don't they flower for such a long time?

Agave is sometimes called the "plant of the century" due to its long lifespan, and in Japan, it is sometimes said to live for 50 to 100 years or more. Is this really true?

Although I couldn't find any actual scientific papers, this is probably an exaggeration, and according to English-language sources such as the English Wikipedia, they typically live for 10 to 30 years.

It's possible that the environment in Japan differs from that of its country of origin, slowing down its growth and potentially allowing it to live for 50 to 100 years, but this has likely not been scientifically verified.

Also, if "ryūzetsuran" means "agave (genus Agave)" and includes other types of agave, then this rule might not apply.

However, it is true that they live for a very long time. Moreover, at the very end of their life, they bloom profusely just once, secreting pollen and nectar. Once flowering is over, they die and wither away. This is a characteristic of plants called "monovolent plants." Why do they do this? It seems that this would reduce the opportunities for pollination and make it difficult to leave offspring.

This is thought to be related to adaptation to bat pollination, as mentioned above (Eguiarte et al., 2021).

Agave plants are known to store agua miel (agave syrup) in their stems to provide bats with an abundance of pollen and nectar as food. This syrup is very sweet and can be consumed by humans as is, or used to make alcoholic beverages such as pulque and mezcal (tequila is one type), as described later.

The reason they have a long lifespan and rarely bloom is because their production takes a very long time.

But if that's the case, why did bat pollination evolve in the first place?

One major reason for this is likely the scarcity of pollinating insects and birds in the hot, drought-prone regions where agave originates. In the case of Agave americana, diurnal hummingbirds also contribute to pollination (Knudsen & Tollsten, 1995).

Although I said that they wither and reach the end of their lifespan, they do produce fruit and continue to grow as the next generation by sending out adventitious buds from the base. Therefore, they will never become extinct.

Is it a myth that agave is used to make tequila?

A common misconception is that agave is used to make tequila.

In volume 5 of the manga "Moyashimon," which I loved reading when I was a student, there is a scene where Takuma Kawashima, a student who has returned from Mexico, cuts down an agave plant on campus (!) and uses the agua miel (agave syrup) as an ingredient for pulque (fermented agave liquor). In that scene, he says something to the effect that "agave is used as an ingredient for tequila."

However, this statement is somewhat misleading. If "ryūzetsuran" means "agave (genus Agave)," then there is no problem, but if it means " Agave americana," then it is incorrect.

This is because the Tequila Regulatory Board has clearly defined, for brand protection purposes, that "tequila refers to a beverage produced in the town of Tequila and using tequila agave (Agave tequilana) as its main ingredient" (Kuramitsu, 2021). This is the same as with wine.

Tequila agave looks quite similar to agave green (and agave), but it is a completely different species with red spines on its leaves. It is also distributed only in Mexico and does not grow in the United States like agave green, and it is probably difficult and rare to cultivate it in the wild in Japan.

However, tequila is a type of Mexican distilled spirit made primarily from mezcal, which is made from agave, and mezcal itself can sometimes be made from the blue agave plant. I'd like to ask someone who has actually tasted it how it differs from tequila.

References

Eguiarte, LE, Jiménez Barrón, OA, Aguirre-Planter, E., Scheinvar, E., Gamez, N., Gasca-Pineda, J., … & Souza, V. 2021. Evolutionary ecology of Agave: distribution patterns, phylogeny, and coevolution (an homage to Howard S. Gentry). American Journal of Botany 108(2): 216-235. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.1609

Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2002. Flora of North America (Vol. 26 Liliidae). Oxford University Press, ‎Oxford. 752pp. ISBN: 9780195152081

Ishii, Hiroshi. 2020. The Resilient and Wonderful Relationship Between Flowers and Insects: Ecology Related to Pollination. Bere Publishing, Tokyo. 290pp. ISBN: 9784860646103

Knudsen, JT, & Tollsten, L. 1995. Floral scent in bat-pollinated plants: a case of convergent evolution. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 119(1): 45-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1995.tb00728.x

Kawakita, Atsushi. 2012. How did obligate pollination symbiosis cross the ocean? – Island biogeography of symbiotic systems of the Phyllanthaceae family and the genus Phyllanthus. Journal of the Ecological Society of Japan 62(3): 321-327. https://doi.org/10.18960/seitai.62.3_321

Kuramitsu, Jun. 2021. Authentic Shochu as seen from the export strategies of tequila and mezcal. Journal of the Brewing Society of Japan 116(2): 77-88. ISSN: 0914-7314, https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2030937155

Trejo-Salazar, RE, Eguiarte, LE, Suro-Piñera, D., & Medellin, RA 2016. Save our bats, save our tequila: industry and science forces join to help bats and agaves. Natural Areas Journal 36(4): 523-530. https://doi.org/10.3375/043.036.0417

Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the family Asparagaceae, and they grow in forests. They are also cultivated as ornamental plants, and because their flowers and leaves are very similar, these three species are often confused. Distinguishing between them can be difficult, but recording the leaf width, the number of flowers, and the length of the flower stalk will help clarify the distinction. This article will explain the classification of the genus Liriope.

What are Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata?

Liriope muscari, also known as lilyturf or bush orchid, is an evergreen perennial herb distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; as well as in Korea, China, and Taiwan, growing in forests of evergreen broad-leaved trees and cedar plantations (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018). It flowers from August to October.

Liriope minor, also known as dwarf lilyturf, is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands in Japan; as well as in Korea and China. It is an evergreen perennial herb that grows in grasslands, embankments, and sparse forests from the coast to areas with oak and chestnut trees. It flowers from July to September.

Liriope spicata, also known as Ryukyu Liriope, is an evergreen perennial herb distributed in central Honshu, Japan (up to Kagoshima and Yakushima), Korea, Taiwan, China, and Indochina, growing in mountain forests and other similar environments. It flowers from July to September.

All three are evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family), and they grow in forests. They are also cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens, and the three species are often confused because their flowers and leaves are very similar. Liriope muscari is often sold as "Liriope muscari," so distinguishing between them can be difficult.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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What are the differences between Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata?

Distinguishing between these three species can be quite difficult without practice, but the differences have been clearly confirmed (Wu & Raven, 2000).

First, there is a difference between Liriope muscari and Liriope japonica: Liriope muscari does not have stolons, while Liriope japonica and Liriope leucocephala do produce stolons.

This is a crucial difference, and while it might become clear if you look for the root cause, it might be difficult to find.

There are other differences in the flowers as well. All species in the genus Liriope typically bear numerous small, pale purple flowers in racemes.

In contrast to Liriope muscari, which has dark-colored flowers and large flower stalks (30-50 cm tall) with numerous flowers densely packed together, Liriope muscari and Liriope japonica have lighter-colored flowers, smaller flower stalks (less than 20 cm tall), and are only sparsely arranged.

This should allow us to categorize them broadly.

Regarding Liriope muscari and Liriope japonica, botanically speaking, the main difference is that the anthers of the stamens in Liriope muscari are 1-1.5 mm long, while those in Liriope japonica are 2 mm long.

However, it's probably not very practical.

Another difference lies in the flowers: while Liriope muscari produces only 5 to 12 flowers per stem, Liriope japonica produces 20 to 200 flowers per stem.

Furthermore, regarding the leaves, while the leaves of Liriope muscari are only 1.5-3 mm wide, those of Liriope japonica are 4-7 (up to 10) mm wide.

These two points represent crucial differences.

What is the variety of liriope?

Several varieties of Liriope are known.

Liriope muscari f. variegata is a variety with variegated leaves.

Liriope muscari f. albiflora is a variety with white flowers.

Okinawa Liriope f. praealba is a variety whose newly sprouted leaves are white.

References

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Wu, ZY, & Raven, PH (Eds.). 2000. Flora of China (Vol. 24 Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. 431pp. ISBN: 9780915279838

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. Terminal branches may also be leaf-like (asparagus and Ruscus genera). Flowers are solitary at the stem apex or leaf axils, or borne in diverse racemes or umbels. They bear bisexual flowers. Perianth segments are free or fused, with three outer and three inner perianth segments, some identical and some heteromorphic. The ovary is usually superior. Some species produce berries, while others produce capsules. They are widely distributed worldwide, comprising 153 genera and approximately 2,500 species. There are 14 genera and 56 species in Japan. The Asparagaceae family includes most of the Asparagine subfamily, which is characterized by berries and rhizomes, as well as the Ophiopogonoideae subfamily, the entire Scilloideae subfamily, and the genus Hosta, which was previously classified as the Asphodeloideae subfamily. Along with the Hemerocallisaceae family and the Amaryllidaceae family, it belongs to the Asparagales order.

This article provides a comprehensive, illustrated guide to plants belonging to the Asparagaceae family.

The basic information is based on Tsukamoto (1994) and the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018). Photographs are replaced as better ones become available. While the identifications are made by the author, please note that they may be changed without notice if misidentifications are found.

No. 0557 Ornithogalum umbellatum

This perennial plant is native to Europe and Southwest Asia, and is cold-hardy. Its bulb is spherical and relatively small, about 3 cm in diameter, but it readily produces small bulbs and propagates easily. The leaves are somewhat broad, 2-16 mm in length. In typical specimens, the midrib is white. It bears 12-20 flowers in a cymose inflorescence, and the lower flower stalk is long, about 10 cm. The flowers are 2.5 cm in diameter, white in color, with the outside of the perianth petals being green with white stripes on the ground. The flowers open around 11 a.m. and close around 3 p.m. The flowering season is April. It is a naturalized plant native to the Mediterranean region. It was introduced to Japan in the early Meiji period as an ornamental plant. It has been confused with Ornithogalum umbellatum, which has a corymbose inflorescence with 6-10 flowers.

No.0557.a False Seaweed (Albuca bracteata)

This perennial herb has a bulb that grows up to 10 cm in diameter. The leaves are basal, linear, 30-60 cm long and 2-4 cm wide, with a pointed, tail-like tip. 50-100 flowers are densely borne in corymbs or racemes on flower stalks 30-80 cm tall. The flowers are 2.5 cm in diameter with six perianth segments; the inside is white with a green stripe down the center, and the outside has prominent, thick green stripes. The fruit is a capsule. It is a subterranean plant whose leaves wither during droughts. Native to South Africa (Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces), it can also be found in tropical East Africa, although it may have been introduced there. It inhabits forests, forest edges, enclosed woodlands, and protected slopes. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No. 0558 Nishikiyuri (Lilium orientalis)

A bulbous perennial herb, also known as hyacinth. It has a bulb and in early spring produces 4 to 6 fleshy leaves about 2 cm wide and 20 cm long, with a thick flower stalk rising from the center of the basal leaves. In April, it bears numerous funnel-shaped flowers about 3 cm in diameter in racemes. The perianth is 6-lobed, with the lobes spreading and reversing. There are 6 stamens, attached to the middle of the flower tube. The fruit is a 3-angled capsule with 3 chambers, and it dehisces with 3 petals. The wild species has bluish-purple flowers, but there are horticultural varieties with pink, red, white, and yellow flowers. The bulb is a layered bulb. The mother bulb remains and enlarges without being consumed, and in the case of large bulbs, it is composed of scales formed over 3 years, and the outside is covered with a thin, papery outer skin. The color of the outer skin is almost the same as the flower color, so the flower color can be roughly determined by looking at the bulb. It is distributed in the Mediterranean region, including Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor. Hyacinths were introduced to Europe via Italy in the 16th century, resulting in the development of Dutch hyacinths, primarily cultivated in the Netherlands, and Roman hyacinths, improved in France. While the latter are hardier and easier to grow, their flowers and clusters are smaller, leading to less cultivation. Dutch hyacinths became more widespread, particularly gaining popularity in the 18th century. Hyacinths were introduced to Japan during the Edo period, specifically the Ansei era (1854-1860), but widespread cultivation only began in the Taisho era (1912-1926). It is said that there were once as many as 2,000 horticultural varieties of hyacinths, but their diversity lies mainly in flower color; they do not exhibit the same level of variation in plant form or flower shape as tulips or narcissus. This is attributed to the fact that they originated from only one wild species, and no interspecific hybrids were created.

No. 0560 Hyacinthoides hispanica

This is a bulbous perennial herb. The leaves are linear-lanceolate to lanceolate. It flowers from April to May. A raceme of about 10 small, somewhat slender, tubular flowers with bell-shaped openings extend from the tip of an upright flower stalk. The fruit is a capsule. It is native to the western part of the Iberian Peninsula (excluding the extremely northwest), including Portugal and western Spain, but is cultivated in many countries, including Japan. It has naturalized in many European countries, North America, and Australia.

No.0560.a Scilla forbesii

Forbesii's Snow Lily is the author's provisional name. It is part of a group of plants known horticulturally as Chionodoxa. It is a perennial herb. The bulb produces two leaves up to 12 cm long and 2 cm wide, and one flower stalk up to 10.5 cm long. The flowers are borne in broad, pyramidal racemes, with up to 12 flowers per stalk. The lower flowers face outwards, and the upper flowers face upwards. Each flower is up to 3 cm in diameter, with individual petals 1.3 cm long. The base of each perianth segment is white, creating a white "eye." The outside of the perianth segments is dark blue to purplish-blue. It is distinguished from other species of the same genus by the flattened base of the stamens, which are densely clustered in the center of the flower. It is native to western and southern Turkey. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries, including Japan.

No. 0561 Muscari botryoides

This is a perennial herb, growing up to 20 (to 30) cm tall. The bulb is ovate, 1.5–2.5 × 1–2 cm, without lateral branches, and translucent to pale brown. There are 2–4 (to 5) leaves. The leaf blade has prominent ridges, is linear to umbel-shaped, 15–35 (to 40) cm × 3–8 (to 12) mm, and the apex is abruptly curled. It flowers from March to May. The pedicels are 20–35 (to 40) cm long, usually slightly exceeding the leaves. The racemes consist of 12–20 flowers. The flowers have sky-blue corolla tubes, are spherical to ovate, 2–4 × 2–3 mm, with white margins, and spreading pedicels 1–3 (to 5) mm long. The fruit is a capsule, 4–6 × 4–6 mm, and 3-lobed. It is native to Central and Southeastern Europe, growing in open forest areas and mountain meadows. It is cultivated for ornamental purposes in various countries, including Japan, and escapes cultivation in the United States (Flora of North America). Information on identifying Muscari species is scarce on the Japanese internet, but it is clearly described in "Flora of North America". Although both Muscari ruficollis and Muscari ruficollis have sky-blue flower tubes, they can be distinguished by the number of flowers in the raceme: Muscari ruficollis has 12-20 flowers, while Muscari ruficollis has 20-40.

No.0561.a Grape Muscari (Muscari armeniacum)

Perennial herb. Also known as Large Blue Limuscari. 15–22.5 cm tall. The bulb is less than 2.5 cm in diameter (10 cm in circumference), slightly elongated, with a brown (gray) skin. Leaves emerge in autumn and persist until flowering. Leaves are (3–)6–8 in number, linear, 30–40 cm long × 3–8 (–10) mm wide, uneven, the convex side is glossy green, the concave side is blunt, powdery white, and always longer than the flower stalk. One–3 flower stalks grow on the bulb, about 20 (–30) cm long. The raceme is borne on the flower stalk, conical, thick, 2–10 cm long, and densely bearing 20–40 flowers. It is called "grape" because it resembles an inverted bunch of grapes. Bracts are small and white. Flowers are slightly fragrant. Pedicels are slightly shorter than the flowers. The corolla is urn-shaped to cup-shaped (oblong to obovate), with a constricted mouth, 6-7 mm long, dark purplish-blue to light blue, and has white teeth. Sterile flowers are borne in clusters of 2-10 (18 or fewer) at the tip of the raceme, and these sterile flowers lack pedicels. The entire plant is light blue. The seeds are about 2 mm long and black. Flowering occurs from March to May (August to October in the Southern Hemisphere). Fruiting occurs from October to December in the Southern Hemisphere.

No.0561.b Eucomis pallidiflora subsp. pole–evansii

Poleevansi Hoshiomoto is the author's provisional name. It is a perennial herb. It is part of what is called Eucomis in horticulture. It is also called Eucomis pole-evansii, but recent papers often classify it as a subspecies (e.g., Rasethe et al., 2019). The academic history is unclear. It has very large rosette leaves and flowers in the summer. Thick flower stalks with purple spots reach a height of 1.3 to 1.5 m, from which green or greenish-white flowers bloom in a spiral. After flowering, purple to black fruits form along the flower heads. It is native to South Africa and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries.

No.0561.c Eucomis autumnalis

Otumnari sieboldii is the author's provisional name. It is a perennial herb, part of what is called Eucomis in horticulture. Like other Eucomis species, it has rosette leaves. The leaves are up to 55 cm long and 6-13 cm wide, with wavy margins. The sweet-smelling inflorescences that form at the end of summer are dense racemes, reaching an overall height of 30-45 cm. Individual flowers have green, yellowish-green, or white perianth segments, growing on pedicels 2-10 mm long. The stamen filaments are joined at the base, forming a slightly cup-shaped structure. At the top of the inflorescence are green bracts, up to 65 mm long. There is no purple coloration overall. It is native to Malawi and the Cape Province of South Africa and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries.

No.0561.d Bowiea volubilis

This is a perennial succulent plant with an onion-like bulb that can reach 20 cm in diameter. The surface is smooth and pale green. One or two vine-like stems grow from the top of the bulb. These vine-like stems are annuals. The stems branch repeatedly as they grow upwards, reaching a maximum length of 2-3 meters. Small, pale green, six-petaled flowers bloom from spring to summer, but they are not very conspicuous. The leaves are almost vestigial. It is native to South Africa, from Kenya to the Cape Province, and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No. 0563 Chlorophytum comosum (Spider Plant)

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The leaves are long and narrow, reaching 20-30 cm in length, with pointed tips. The roots are succulent and grow in clumps. Runners emerge from between the leaves, producing new plants (seedlings) with aerial roots at each node. The name "spider plant" comes from the appearance of these new plants hanging down in several tiers with their aerial roots. The flowers are white and small, blooming at several nodes on the runners in spring. It is native to Natal, South Africa, and is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. 'Vittatum' is a horticultural variety with variegated leaves.

No.0563.1 Chlorophytum comosum 'Variegatum' (Spider Plant)‘

A cultivated variety of spider plant with green leaves edged in white.

No. 0564 Agave americana

This evergreen perennial herb is native to Mexico and Texas, USA, and is cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide, including Japan, and has naturalized in some countries. It thrives in hot climates and drought-prone areas. Due to its long lifespan, it is sometimes called the "plant of the century," and in Japan, it is sometimes said to live for over 50 years, but this is likely false; according to information from English-speaking countries, it usually lives for 10 to 30 years (no scientific literature found). It spreads to about 1.8 to 3.0 m and has grayish-green leaves 0.9 to 1.5 m long, each with a spiny edge and a heavy spike at the tip that can pierce deeply. It is a unirtrix plant, and near the end of its life, it produces tall, branched stems covered with many yellow flowers, which can reach a height of up to 8 to 9 m. It is pollinated by bats at night, which come to feed on nectar and pollen, and by hummingbirds during the day (Knudsen & Tollsten, 1995). No literature describing specific species could be found. On the other hand, in Agave angustifolia, the Saussure bat (Leptonycteris curasoae) is almost exclusively pollinated by bats that come to feed on nectar and pollen (Molina-Freaner & Eguiarte, 2003). The pollination ecology of wild and cultivated species of the genus Agave has been largely unstudied, and a comprehensive review can be found in Trejo-Salazar et al. (2016). The plant dies after flowering, but adventitious buds emerge from the base, continuing to grow as the next generation. The reason why it is a unicycled plant with tall inflorescences, more flowers, nectar, and complex carbohydrates is thought to be an adaptation to bat pollination that allows for long-distance pollination (Eguiarte et al., 2021). The reason it rarely flowers is probably because the production of these substances takes a very long time. If the flower stalk is cut before the flowers bloom, a sweet liquid called agua miel (honey water) collects in the hollow center of the plant. In pre-Columbian Mexico, this was fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage called pulque or octori. Mezcal is a distilled spirit made from this liquid. Agave americana is a species of agave used to make mezcal. It is sometimes said that Agave americana is the raw material for tequila, a well-known type of mezcal, but this is also false. Tequila is produced in the town of Tequila and refers to the tequila agave, Agave tequilana, which is the main ingredient, so it is different from this species. Similarly, tequila agave is pollinated by bats, so its conservation needs to be considered in conjunction with bats (Trejo-Salazar et al., 2016). The leaves were also used to make a fiber called pita.

What's the difference between agave and yucca? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species! Is it a myth that they live for 100 years? Is it a myth that they're used to make tequila? – Ecological Notes Web

Agave, agave, Yucca, and yucca all belong to the Asparagaceae family (formerly known as the Asparagaceae family), and are characterized by their large size, sometimes reaching the height of a child or adult, and their monocotyledonous leaves with parallel veins.

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No.0564.1 Agave americana 'Marginata'‘

This is a variety of Agave americana with yellow stripes along the edges of each leaf. Note that the relationship between the Japanese name and the scientific name is reversed.

No.0565.a Agave stricta

This is an evergreen perennial herb. It is an evergreen succulent that grows to a height of 50 cm, with a rosette diameter of 50-60 cm, and narrow, spiny, elongated leaves that radiate outwards. In summer, it produces upright racemes up to 2 m long, bearing reddish-purple flowers. The leaves may take on a reddish tint in summer. It is native to Puebla and Oaxaca in southern Mexico. In Japan, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant. It may be pollinated by bats or hummingbirds, but no research literature confirming this could be found.

No. 0566 Yucca gloriosa var. gloriosa

This evergreen shrub is also known as Yucca (a general term for the genus). It grows to a height of 50-250 cm and branches. The leaves are 60-75 cm long and about 5 cm wide, firm and thick, dark green to later grayish-green, and pointed at the tip. The flowers are erect, forming a conical inflorescence at a height of 1-2 m, bearing numerous white flowers. The individual flowers are large and bell-shaped, reaching nearly 10 cm in diameter. It blooms in June, sometimes blooming again in the fall. The fruit is a slender, leathery fruit. Native to the southern United States, it grows on exposed sand dunes and breakwater islands along the coast. It is the most commonly cultivated species in Japan. The genus Yucca, including this species, is known to have an obligate pollination symbiotic relationship with the moths Tegeticula and Parategeticula (Kawakita, 2012; Ishii, 2020). Female yucca moths visit Yucca plants with the purpose of laying eggs on the pistils. These moths use their specialized antennae to collect pollen from other Yucca plants, thus pollinating the Yucca plants. The eggs laid by the yucca moths hatch when the pistils mature and develop into seeds, and the larvae complete their development by eating the seeds. Yucca plants regulate the behavior of yucca moths by exhibiting a physiological phenomenon that stops fruit maturation if a certain number of eggs are laid on the pistils, preventing excessive seed consumption. In Japan, where yucca moths are absent, fruit rarely develops. Yucca yuccasella is pollinated by Tegeticula yuccasella, and very rarely, introduced European honeybees also visit (Heyduk et al., 2021). The thin fruits are dispersed by wind (Kawakita, 2012). The symbiotic relationship between Yucca and yucca moths is only found in the continental United States and Mexico.

No. 0567 Yucca gloriosa var. recurvifolia

Yucca gloriosa is a variety of Yucca gloriosa that is taller and has slightly softer leaves, causing the lower leaves to bend in the middle. It is native to the southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia along the coast south to Florida in the south and Texas in the west.

No. 0568 Itran (Yucca filamentosa)

This is an evergreen shrub. In 'Ylist', it's listed as Yucca flaccida. There's a belief that Yucca flaccida is included within Yucca filamentosa (NCBI, Flora of North America). Yucca filamentosa is older in description, so the reason for 'Ylist' listing it as Yucca flaccida is unclear. It typically lacks a trunk and has thread-like, bluish-green, string-like leaves up to 75cm long with multiple suction cups. It's easily distinguished from other Yucca species by the white, thread-like filaments along the leaf margins. The flower stalks can reach 3m in height, bearing drooping cream-colored flowers in early summer. It's native to southeastern Virginia and Florida, and as far west as southern and southeastern Texas. It's most commonly found in sandy soils, especially as a coastal shrub or in sand dunes. In Japan, it's cultivated as an ornamental plant. Yucca filamentosa is pollinated by the yucca moth Tegeticula cassandra and, in the northern population, by the distantly related T. yuccasella (Svensson et al., 2005), while Yucca flaccida is pollinated by Tegeticula intermedia (Pellmyr, 1999), indicating an obligate pollination symbiotic relationship.

No.0568.a Yucca aloifolia

This evergreen shrub has an upright trunk, 7.6–12.7 cm in diameter, reaching a height of 1.5–6.1 m before the top becomes heavy and falls over. Once fallen, the tip turns upward and continues to grow. Each trunk is armed with a band of sharply pointed leaves with fine serrations, each about 0.61 m long. Young leaves near the growing tip are upright. Older leaves bend downward, and older leaves wither and turn brown, hanging from the lower trunk. Eventually, a spike of white-purple flowers, 0.61 m long, develops at the tip of the trunk, with each flower about 12.7 cm in diameter. After flowering, the trunk stops growing, but one or more lateral buds quickly form, with the top becoming a new terminal bud. New buds or branches are produced near the base of the trunk. Native to the Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions of the United States, from southern Virginia in the southeastern United States south to Florida, the Texas Gulf Coast in the west, Mexico along the Yucatan Coast to Bermuda, and parts of the Caribbean, it inhabits dry sandy beaches and shrub coastal areas, forming bushes. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries, including Japan. There is a hypothesis that Mexican timoran (Tetechia elephantipes ), native to Mexico, is a variety introduced and selected by early European settlers. In the southern United States, it is pollinated by the yucca moths Tetechia yuccasella and T. cassandra, and they have an obligate pollination symbiotic relationship (Rentsch & Leebens-Mack, 2014).

No.0568.b Variegated Yucca aloifolia 'Marginata'‘

A variety of *Senjuran* with yellow variegation on its leaves.

No.0571.a Hosta 'Halcyon'‘

This is a variety of hosta with grayish-blue-green leaves. The original species is unknown according to the author's research; it is also considered a hybrid.

No. 0574 Hosta sieboldii var. sieboldii f. spathulata

This is a perennial herb, reaching a height of 40-50 cm. The leaf blades vary considerably in shape and size, ranging from narrowly ovate to elliptic or ovate-elliptic, with an acute or acute apex, gradually narrowing at the base to form a wing that flows into the petiole, and having 3-6 veins on each side. The bracts are green, narrowly ovate, and acutely apex. The flowers are pale purple, 4-5 cm long. Flowering occurs from July to August. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Ussuri. It grows in grasslands and sparse forests. There is also a form called Hosta var. intermedia with particularly narrow leaf blades, but there appear to be no definitive taxonomic characteristics between the two.

No. 0578 Cordyline fruticosa

This evergreen shrub grows upright, reaching a height of approximately 100-450 cm and a width of approximately 100-250 cm. Its leaves come in various colors, including green, purple, red, pink, and black. New leaves are bright red or yellow, becoming darker as they age. The leaf blades are oval-shaped (approximately 30-75 cm long and 5-10 cm wide), and the leaves are arranged alternately. Flowering occurs from November to March of the following year, or year-round in warmer climates. It produces long inflorescences bearing small, fragrant yellow to red flowers. After flowering, small, spherical fruits develop, which ripen to a red color. It is distributed from Bangladesh to mainland Southeast Asia, southern China, Taiwan, the islands of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern Australia. It was carried throughout Oceania by the Austronesian people, who speak the Austronesian language family and spread from Taiwan to the islands of Southeast Asia, the Pacific islands, and Madagascar, reaching as far as Hawaii, New Zealand (including the Kermadec Islands), and Easter Island. It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant in other countries, including Japan. In East Polynesia, a variety with large green leaves is cultivated for use as an edible rhizome, and it has been artificially selected to be sterile and propagate only by cuttings. It is deeply associated with animistic religion among Austronesians, who believe it can hold the soul and therefore help heal the loss of the soul. The most familiar use to Japanese people is in the skirts (rai'i skirts) worn by hula dancers in Hawaii. The leaves are also used in cooking, as well as for canoe ropes and clothing.

No.0578.a Cordyline australis

This evergreen tree can reach a maximum height of 20 meters. Its trunk is thick, with a diameter of 1.5 to 2 meters. Before flowering, it has thin, unbranched stems, but after the first flowering, it forms a crown consisting of many branched branches with clusters of leaves at their tips. Each branch may further branch after the formation of the inflorescence. The bark is light gray to dark gray, corky, with cracks on the surface but does not peel naturally, and feels spongy to the touch. The leaves are long, narrow, and erect, light green to dark green. They are 40 to 100 cm long, with a base width of 3 to 7 cm. They have numerous parallel veins. They grow in clusters at the tips of branches, and the tips of the leaves, and in older leaves, the bases, may droop. The leaves are thick, with an indistinct midrib, and fine veins run somewhat uniformly and parallel. There is little difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves. From spring to early summer, it bears sweet-smelling flowers in large racemes 60 to 100 cm long. The flowers and inflorescences are sessile or nearly sessile, with the flowers densely arranged along the inflorescence. Each flower is 5-6 mm in diameter, with six perianth segments that separate near the base and curve backward. The stamens are roughly the same length as the perianth segments. The pistil is short, and the stigma is three-lobed. The fruit is a white berry, 5-7 mm in diameter. It is endemic to New Zealand, a pioneer plant, and can be found in a wide variety of locations, from forests and rocky coastlines to low-lying wetlands, lakesides and riverbanks, and on isolated rocks. In Japan, Europe, and North America, it is cultivated for ornamental purposes. The sweet fragrance of the flowers attracts many insects, but the nectar contains aromatic compounds, mainly esters and terpenes, which particularly attract moths. The fruit takes about two months to ripen and is dispersed by birds by the end of summer. The inflorescence structure is sturdy enough for heavy birds, such as the New Zealand pigeon, which was once the main seed disperser, to cling to it. Each fruit contains 3 to 6 glossy black seeds, each covered in a charcoal-like substance (phytomelan) that protects the seeds in the digestive tract of birds. The Maori people have used the stems for food and the leaves for fiber.

No.0579 Asparagus cochinchinensis var. lucidus

Asparagus jasmine is a dioecious perennial herb. Also known as Tenmondou, it is a climbing perennial herb. The stems grow to about 2m in length. In May, it bears small, pale yellowish-green flowers, about 6mm in diameter, in clusters of 1 to 4. The flower stalks are 2-5mm long. The fruit ripens to white. It is distributed from Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu Islands to Korea, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. It grows in coastal forest edges and rocky areas.

What are the differences between Asparagus, Asparagus japonica, and Asparagus serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species – Ecological Notes Web

Asparagus, rhizome, and kusasukazura are all perennial herbs belonging to the genus Asparagus in the family Asparagaceae, and their most distinctive feature is the clusters of very thin, spine-like "leaf-like" structures. In reality, these are modified "branches" (called leaf-like branches).

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No. 0582 Asparagus officinalis

This is a dioecious perennial herb, also known as asparagus. Its fruits ripen to a red color. The plant grows to about 1.5m tall, and the long, slender, leaf-like structures at the end of the stem are modified stems that perform photosynthesis and are therefore called pseudoleaves (or cladoid branches). Morphologically, the true leaves are the triangular parts clinging to the stem, commonly called "hakama" (skirts). It produces small, yellowish-white flowers from May to July. Propagation is by seed. It resembles Asparagus, but can be distinguished by its clusters of 5-8 straight, slender cladoid branches and its flower stalks, which are about 1cm long. It is native to the west coast of Europe (from northern Spain to northwestern Germany, Northern Ireland, and the United Kingdom). It is cultivated in various countries, including Japan, as a vegetable and sometimes as an ornamental plant. In Japan, it sometimes escapes cultivation and becomes naturalized, mainly in alluvial plains. The young shoots that emerge from the third year after planting are generally used for food. Asparagus has been used as a vegetable due to its unique flavor, and also as a medicine due to its diuretic and aphrodisiac properties. It is a vegetable that contains notable nutrients such as aspartic acid (named after asparagus, one of the umami components, and acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system in humans), as well as vitamins, folic acid, and rutin. Historically, it was already depicted as an offering in Egyptian friezes (part of architectural decoration) from 3000 BC. In ancient times, it was also known in Syria and the Iberian Peninsula. The Greeks and Romans ate fresh asparagus when it was in season and dried it for use in winter. Today, it is eaten all over the world after being boiled, steamed, or stir-fried. It was introduced to Japan by Dutch ships during the Edo period (after 1781) and cultivated for ornamental purposes, but it was not until the Meiji era (1871) that it was introduced for food by the Hokkaido Development Commission. Varieties such as white asparagus are also known. When asparagus is digested, volatile sulfur-containing compounds are released from aspartic acid, causing an odor in human urine, although the degree of odor varies from person to person. It has been found that this is not due to individual differences in digestion, but rather to individual differences in olfactory genes caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). However, the adaptive significance of this, as well as the adaptive significance of the high aspartic acid content for the Dutch asparagus, is not yet understood.

No.0584 Dracaena draco

This evergreen tree is long-lived, reaching a maximum height of over 15 meters and a trunk circumference of over 5 meters. Its bark starts smooth and becomes rougher as it ages. The leaves are flat, leathery, bluish-green, and sword-shaped, growing in clusters at the tips of the branches. In June, large conical inflorescences emerge from the branch tips, bearing small, white-green, tubular flowers with a lily-like fragrance, and producing round, orange fruits. When young, it has a single stem, but at around 10-15 years old, stem growth stops, a terminal bud appears, and the plant begins to branch. Each branch grows for about 10-15 years before re-branching, resulting in a mature dragon's blood tree with an umbrella-like shape. Growth is slow, taking about 10 years to reach a height of 1.2 meters. The name "dragon's blood tree" comes from the fact that a reddish resin is secreted when the bark or leaves are cut. Native to the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Madeira, and western Morocco in Africa, it is believed to have been introduced to the Azores. Its unusual tree shape has led to its cultivation as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No.0584.a Dracaena concinna

This is an evergreen shrub. It can grow to a height of 2-4.5m, but indoors it will be about 0.5-2m. Narrow, elongated leaves, 30-50cm long, grow densely at the top of the stems. The leaves are green with a red margin. Native to Madagascar and the Mauritius Islands, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries, including Japan.

No.0584.b Dracaena fragrans

This evergreen shrub to tree grows to over 6 meters tall in its natural habitat, sometimes reaching 15 meters. It does not have a succulent rhizome. Young plants have a single, unbranched trunk, but if the mature tip flowers or is damaged, that part will branch out into two or more new trunks. The branches are usually slender, erect, and form a narrow canopy. The leaves are densely clustered at the ends of the trunk and branches, glossy green, and have wavy edges. They are lanceolate, 20-150 cm long and 2-12 cm wide, and the larger leaves droop under their own weight. As it grows, the lower leaves fall off, leaving the trunk exposed. From the leaf axils emerge panicles 15-160 cm long, bearing numerous small, six-petaled flowers clustered in a rounded head. The flowers are pinkish in bud, and when they open at night, they turn white to cream-colored, with thin red or purple lines in the center of each perianth segment. The flowers are fragrant. The flower has no bracts at its base. The ovary is divided into three chambers, each containing one ovule. The fruit is a berry that ripens to an orange-red color, 1-2 cm in diameter. Native to tropical Africa, it is distributed from southern Sudan to Mozambique, as far west as Côte d'Ivoire, and as far southwest as Angola. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan. It is sometimes referred to as Koufuku-no-ki, but it is a completely different species and is actually said to refer to Sennenboku.

No.0584.c Dracaena surculosa 'Florida Beauty' (Star-flowered pine tree)‘

This is an evergreen shrub. Its leaves are ovate with pointed tips, thin and soft, and have entire margins. It produces numerous small, slender, tubular white flowers in spike-like inflorescences. A distinctive feature of the 'Florida Beauty' variety is its green leaves with many yellow spots. These yellow spots turn white as the leaves age. The corolla is five-lobed at the tip. Native to tropical West and Central West Africa, from Guinea to the Republic of Congo, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan.

No.0584.d Beaucarnea recurvata (Ponytail Orchid)

This evergreen tree grows up to 4.72m tall, with a single, palm-like stem bearing thin, linear, green, flat or slightly ridged leaves. The leaves form clusters, and after more than 10 years, it occasionally produces small white flower clusters. The trunk, which is greatly swollen only at the base, branches slightly at the top. It has a large tuber to store water. The nearly spherical tuber in its youth later grows to 4-6m in length and reaches a diameter of over 50cm at the base. The bark is smooth. Native to eastern Mexico, it used to grow wild in many states, but is now limited to Veracruz. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan. Human activity is reducing its population.

No.0586.1 Dracaena trifasciata 'Laurentii'‘

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The previously used name Sansevieria trifasciata was later identified by Mabberley (2017) as a synonym of Dracaena trifasciata. The NCBI Taxonomy still lists it as Sansevieria trifasciata. The stems are underground and creep horizontally, with only the leaves emerging above ground. Leaves grow from the creeping stems at small intervals, and these then grow long and upright above ground, resulting in a plant with rows of flat, board-like leaves. The leaves have horizontal stripes of varying shades of green, which is the origin of its name, "tiger's tail orchid." Flower stalks emerge from between the leaves, bearing small, inconspicuous flowers. Nectaries are located at the base of the slender stems of the flowers and buds, from which small, transparent nectar droplets hang. It is a CAM plant and uses a special type of photosynthesis called CAM photosynthesis to suppress daytime photosynthesis, thereby preventing water evaporation and allowing it to withstand drought. On cool nights, it opens its stomata to concentrate carbon dioxide. Native to Africa (Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo), it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in various countries, including Japan. It is believed to have been introduced to Japan sometime between the mid-Meiji and late Meiji periods, and for a long time, only this species of the genus was cultivated. Fukurin Chitosera 'Fukurin Chitosera' is a variety of Atsuba Chitosera with yellow margins on its leaves, and it was introduced to Japan in the early Showa period and has become widely cultivated.

No.0587 Aspidistra elatior

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate, dark green, 20-50 cm long, and have long petioles. The flower stalks are 2-7 cm tall, and the flowers bloom from February to May, being brownish-purple. They are succulent and bloom close to the ground, so they are hidden by the leaves and are not easily seen unless you observe carefully. It is native to the Uji Islands, Kuroshima, and Suwanosejima in southern Kyushu, Japan, and grows in scattered hilly areas, forming colonies under house groves and bamboo forests. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant all over the world and escapes cultivation. There were once hypotheses that it was pollinated by snails and slugs, or by amphipods, but it is now known that these species rarely visit, and that it is pollinated by fungus gnats of the genera Cordyla and Bradysia (Suetsugu & Sueyoshi, 2018). The flowers mimic mushrooms. In Japan, it has been used as a garnish when plating Japanese cuisine. The green plastic ornaments called "baran" that come with sushi and other foods are an imitation of the old name for haran, or a shortened form of "artificial baran," and are made to resemble haran.

No.0588 Rohdea japonica

Evergreen perennial herb (Kitamura et al., 1957). The rhizome is thick and grows obliquely or horizontally, with numerous sturdy roots. The leaves are basal leaves arranged in clusters. They are lanceolate, gradually tapering to a point at the tip and narrowing towards the base. They are thick in texture, glabrous on both sides, glossy, and 30-50 cm long. The flower stalk is 8-18 cm long, glabrous, and leafless. The flowers are densely borne in oblong spike-like inflorescences. The bracts are broadly ovate, membranous, obtuse, and 2-3 mm long. The flowers are sessile and lateral, hemispherical in shape, with perianth segments fused together above the middle to form a tube, and the lobes curve inward and rounded at the apex. There are 6 stamens enclosed in the perianth, with filaments fused to the flower tube and ovate anthers. The ovary is spherical, 3-chambered, with 2 ovules in each chamber. The style is very short, and the stigma is shallowly 3-lobed. The berries are spherical, 1 cm in diameter, red, rarely yellow, and contain one seed. Flowering occurs from May to July. It grows in forests in warm regions of Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and China. It is often found in limestone areas. It also grows in forests around human settlements and escapes cultivation. It is cultivated for ornamental purposes, and many horticultural varieties are known. Classically, it was believed to be malacophilic, with slugs and snails pollinating the flowers, but additional experiments have shown that flowers pollinated by slugs do not bear fruit (Suetsugu, 2019), raising doubts about their contribution to pollination. The possibility of pollination by ants has also been suggested.

No. 0589 Reineckea carnea

This is an evergreen perennial herb (Kitamura et al., 1957). The berry has a well-developed rhizome that creeps long, producing numerous roots at various points, from which leaves and flower stalks emerge. The leaves are arranged in clusters, linear with an acute apex, sessile, 8-30 cm long, and glabrous on both sides. The flowering period is from August to November (to December). The pale reddish-purple flower stalks are leafless, 5-13 cm tall, erect, and glabrous. The spike-like inflorescence is 4.5-7 cm long, with ovate bracts 5-7 mm long. The perianth is about 1 cm long, glabrous, fused to form a tube halfway through, deeply 6-lobed, with narrowly oblong lobes, obtuse apex, and recurved. There are 6 stamens, slightly shorter than the perianth, fused to the flower tube, glabrous at the free part, and anthers 2 mm long. The style is longer than the perianth and glabrous, with a capitate stigma shallowly 3-lobed. The berries are spherical, 6-9 mm in diameter, and ripen to red. The seeds are oval, 4 mm long. It is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, and China, growing in clusters in evergreen broad-leaved forests and cedar plantations in hilly areas. It grows in mountainous forests from west of the Kanto region to Kyushu.

No.0590 Liriope muscari

This is an evergreen perennial herb, growing to a height of 20-60 cm. The leaves have 11-15 veins. The flowers bloom in July, August, and September and are purple. The seeds are spherical, 6-8 mm in diameter, and ripen to black. It is distributed in Honshu (west of the Kanto region), Shikoku, Kyushu, the Ryukyu Islands, Korea, China, and Taiwan, and is somewhat common throughout the oak and evergreen broad-leaved forest zones, growing in forests of evergreen broad-leaved trees and cedar plantations. The white-flowered variety is called Liriope muscari f. albiflora.

What are the differences between Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the family Asparagaceae, growing in forests. They are cultivated as ornamental plants and are often confused with each other due to their similar-looking flowers and leaves. Distinguishing between them is difficult, but recording the leaf width, number of flowers, and flower stalk length can help…

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No.0590.1 Liriope muscari f. variegata

A variety of liriope with slender green leaves and thin yellow or white stripes.

No.0591 Liriope spicata

What are the differences between Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Liriope muscari, Liriope japonica, and Liriope serrata are all evergreen perennial herbs belonging to the genus Liriope in the family Asparagaceae, growing in forests. They are cultivated as ornamental plants and are often confused with each other due to their similar-looking flowers and leaves. Distinguishing between them is difficult, but recording the leaf width, number of flowers, and flower stalk length can help…

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No. 0593 Ophiopogon japonicus var. japonicus

An evergreen perennial herb. Also known as Ophiopogon japonicus. It grows to a height of 7-12 cm. The leaves are 2-4 mm wide with rough edges. Compared to Ophiopogon japonicus, the leaves are shorter but wider, and it often grows in clusters in sunny locations. The flowers bloom in June and July and are pale purple. The seeds ripen to a bluish-green color. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Korea, China, and Taiwan, and is somewhat common in the oak and chestnut zones, mainly growing under evergreen broad-leaved forests and in grasslands. The white-flowered variety is called Ophiopogon japonicus f. leucanthus. There is also a type that grows in clumps and does not produce stolons, called Ophiopogon japonicus var. caespitosus, which is often found as a cultivated variety.

What are the differences between Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid? An explanation of how to distinguish between similar species.

Ophiopogon japonicus, Ophiopogon longifolius, Ophiopogon sieboldii, and Ophiopogon orchid all belong to the Ophiopogon genus of the Asparagaceae family (formerly Asparagaceae), and are evergreen perennial herbs often seen growing creeping along the ground in forests. Their most distinctive feature is the dark blue seeds they produce, which are easily mistaken for fruits…

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No.0593.1 Ophiopogon japonicus var. japonicus f. nanus

This variety of Ophiopogon japonicus grows to a small, dense plant height of 5-8 cm. It has high resistance to flooding and submersion, and can survive even when its roots are submerged in water or submerged in water, making it suitable for cultivation as a ground cover in gardens.

No.0593.2 White Banana Ophiopogon japonicus var. umbrosus f. leucanthus

An evergreen perennial herb. The flower stalks are 10-30 cm tall. The leaves are 1.5-2.5 mm wide. The flowers bloom in June and July and are pale purple. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, southern Korea, and China, and is common in the oak and chestnut zone, growing on the forest floor and forest edges. White-flowered variety Ophiopogon japonicus f. leucanthus.

No.0594.a Ophiopogon jaburan

This is an evergreen perennial herb. The rhizome is vertical and branched. It lacks a stolon. A slender, spindle-shaped thickening may be seen in the middle of the root. The leaves are evergreen and thick, 40–130 cm long and (7–)10–18 mm wide, with an acute to acute apex, sometimes with a narrow, membranous wing on the lower part of the margin, and finely serrated on the upper part of the margin. The flower stalk is arching, 25–75 cm long and 4–8 mm wide, with a flattened, two-angled, narrow wing. The inflorescence is 7–13 cm long, bearing 3–8 flowers at each node. The bracts are narrowly lanceolate to lanceolate, the lowest being 1.5–9 cm long, pale green, with a membranous margin and an apicate apex. The flowers open downwards. The pedicel (including the part enclosed in the perianth sheath) is 10–22 mm long, usually more than twice as long as the perianth (excluding the sheath). The perianth (excluding the sheath-like part) is usually shorter than the perianth sheath, white to pale purple, with ovate-oblong lobes 5-7 mm long and slightly recurved. The anthers are lanceolate, 4-5 mm long. The seeds are dark blue. Mature seeds are elliptical, 8-14 mm long and 6-10 mm wide. The flowering period is from July to September. It is distributed in Honshu (west of Tokai), Shikoku, Kyushu, and Korea (Jeju Island), growing in the undergrowth of forests near the sea. It escapes cultivation mainly near the coast.

No.0597 Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum

This is a perennial herb, growing to a height of 30-60 cm. The leaves are oblong, with a powdery white-green underside. The flowers bloom in April and May, and are white with pale green perianth segments. The filaments have minute projections. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Korea, and China. It is commonly found on hills and foothills, growing in grasslands and bright woodlands.

What are the differences between Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum humile, and Disporum sessile? What insects visit the downward-facing flowers? Polygonatum odoratum was producing flowers with only stamens due to nutrient deficiency!?

Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum humile, and Disporum sessile are all species that bloom in spring and are commonly found both in gardens and as wildflowers, but they can be a little difficult to distinguish because they are often sold mixed together. Therefore, I have summarized the botanical distinguishing features of the Polygonatum genus. Mainly, the way the flowers grow…

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No. 0599 Polygonatum falcatum

This is a perennial herb, growing to a height of 30-60 cm. The rhizome is thick, with short internodes, resembling a string of beads. It has 13-17 leaves, broadly lanceolate in shape, with three prominent main veins, and projection-like hairs on the veins of the underside. Often, a white line runs down the center of the upper surface of the leaf, especially noticeable on young leaves. In May and June, pale yellowish-green, tubular flowers hang down in clusters of 3-4 from the leaf axils. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu; as well as Korea and Northeast China. It grows in forests and grasslands.

No. 0601 Polygonatum lasianthum

This is a perennial herb, reaching a height of 30-60 cm. It has approximately eight leaves, broadly oblong with wavy margins and three prominent main veins. In May and June, the pedicels emerge from the leaf axils, spreading along the underside of the leaves, bearing 1-3 drooping white tubular flowers. In many individuals, the tips of the perianth segments do not open flat. It is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Korea. It mainly grows in bright deciduous forests. In Hokkaido, there is a record of the Hokkaido bumblebee, Bombus diversus tersatus, visiting the flowers (Akabane et al., 2016).

No.0603.1 German Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis)

This perennial herb has a rhizome and two oblong leaves, about 15 cm long and 5 cm wide. The long petioles clasp together, and the lower part is enclosed in membranous, apical leaves. In late spring, a flower stalk about 30 cm long grows from the axil of these apical leaves, usually reaching the same height as the leaves. About 10 small, fragrant, bell-shaped white flowers, about 7 mm long, hang downwards in a raceme. The corolla is 6-lobed with recurved lobes, and there are 6 stamens. The fruit is a red berry. The entire plant contains glycosides such as convallamarin, convallalin, and convallatoxin, which are poisonous but have cardiotonic and laxative effects. This is the species sold in garden centers, and it has larger flowers, a stronger fragrance, glossy leaves, and is suitable for early cultivation compared to the Japanese lily of the valley. In Europe, it is an indispensable flower for May Day celebrations. It is native to Europe, has naturalized in eastern North America, and is cultivated in Japan for ornamental purposes. As horticultural varieties, double-flowered, pink-flowered, red-flowered, and variegated-leaved varieties are known.

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Suetsugu, K. 2019. Slug pollination in Rohdea japonica ? Testing a one-hundred-year-old hypothesis. Journal of Molluscan Studies 85(2): 284-285. https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyz011

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Molina-Freaner, F., & Eguiarte, LE 2003. The pollination biology of two paniculate agaves (Agavaceae) from northwestern Mexico: contrasting roles of bats as pollinators. American Journal of Botany 90(7): 1016-1024. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.90.7.1016

Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum humile, and Disporum sessile are all species that bloom in spring and are commonly found in gardens and as wildflowers, but they can be a little difficult to distinguish as they are often sold mixed together. Therefore, we have summarized the botanical distinguishing features of the Polygonatum genus. They can be distinguished mainly by the way the flowers grow, as well as by the leaves and stems. All of these species have downward-facing flowers, but do you know what role they play in the wild? Polygonatum odoratum is the most well understood, as it is an important source of nutrition for the queen bumblebee, which becomes active in spring. Also, Polygonatum odoratum tends to produce male flowers with only stamens at the top of a single stem and hermaphroditic flowers with both stamens and pistils at the bottom. There are various theories as to why this is the case, but one theory is that it is the result of Polygonatum odoratum cleverly distributing energy due to nutrient deficiencies. The fruit is a berry and is probably dispersed by birds. This article will explain the classification, pollination ecology, and seed dispersal of Polygonatum species.

What are Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum humile, and Polygonatum odoratum?

Polygonatum odoratum, also known as Amadokoro in the broad sense, is a perennial herb distributed from Hokkaido to Kyushu in Japan, as well as in Korea, China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Russia, and Europe, inhabiting sunny grasslands and forest edges (Kitamura et al., 1957). Of these, the Japanese variety var. pluriflorum is found in Japan and Korea. Its young leaves and rhizomes are sweet and used for food and medicine (Tanaka, 1995).

Polygonatum odoratum var. thunbergii, also known as mountain sweet jasmine, closely resembles Polygonatum odoratum, but its underside has fine, hair-like projections.

Polygonatum falcatum, also known as Solomon's seal, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Korea, mainly growing in bright deciduous forests.

Polygonatum lasianthum, also known as Miyama Narukoyuri, is distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Korea, and mainly grows in bright deciduous forests.

Polygonatum macranthum, also known as the large-flowered lily, is a perennial herb distributed in Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, growing in grasslands, deciduous forests, and forest edges.

Both belong to the genus Polygonatum in the Asparagaceae family (formerly Asparagaceae), and are commonly found both in gardens and as wildflowers. Their leaves and flowers are similar, and their flowering periods are close together, so you may have trouble distinguishing them.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #087] What are the species of the Asparagaceae family? Photo list

The Asparagaceae family, also known as the Asparagaceae family, consists of perennial herbs, woody plants, or vines. They have rhizomes or bulbs. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, and may be clustered at the base of the stem. The terminal branches may also be leaf-like (Asparagus genus, Ruscus aculeatus...).

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What are the differences between Polygonatum odoratum, Polygonatum sibiricum, Polygonatum falcatum, and Polygonatum odoratum?

Although they look very similar at first glance, they can be distinguished as follows (Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, 2018).

First, *Polygonatum odoratum* is completely different from other species in that its inflorescence stalk (the slender part on which the flower attaches to the plant) is long, spreads outwards, and bears 1 to 3 flowers. Also, its filaments are densely covered with long hairs. In other species, the inflorescence stalk hangs downwards, and the filaments are hairless or only have minute projections.

Of the remaining species, Polygonatum odoratum and Polygonatum sieboldii have ridged stems except at the base. On the other hand, Polygonatum odoratum and Polygonatum sieboldii have cylindrical stems without ridges, which is a major distinguishing feature.

The difference between Polygonatum odoratum and Polygonatum sieboldii is that Polygonatum odoratum has a smooth underside to its leaves, while Polygonatum sieboldii has tiny protrusions on the underside of its leaves.

The difference between Polygonatum odoratum and Polygonatum sibiricum is that in Polygonatum odoratum, the underside of the leaves is covered with a powdery white substance and is smooth, and the filaments are swollen at the base and have minute projections except for the tip, whereas in Polygonatum sibiricum, there are minute projections on the veins on the underside of the leaves and the filaments are smooth.

Although Disporum sessile may look similar at first glance, it is a completely different member of the Colchicaceae family. Its leaves have three distinct veins that are clearly more deeply indented than those of the Polygonatum genus, its inflorescences are attached to the stem apex, and it usually lacks a peduncle.

[Seed Plant Encyclopedia #069] What are the species of Colchicaceae? Photo List

Colchicaceae are perennial herbs. They have corms or rhizomes. Leaves are alternate, opposite, or whorled, sometimes clustered at the base of the stem. Flowers are solitary or borne in racemes or cymes, exhibiting considerable diversity. They usually bear bisexual flowers. Perianth segments are separate or fused, with 6...

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Other species such as *Campanula punctata* and *Polygonum thunbergii* are also present, but they will be omitted here. For more details, please refer to the Kanagawa Prefectural Flora Survey Association (2018).

What is the structure of a flower?

Polygonatum odoratum blooms from April to May, producing slender, bell-shaped (or oval-shaped) white flowers on single or bifurcated pedicels that emerge from the base of the leaves. The flowers droop as they open, and their tips are tinged with green. The flowers on the stem bloom from the bottom upwards.

Polygonatum odoratum blooms from May to June, with flower stalks that curve downwards from the base, bearing 3 to 8 white flowers. The flowers also droop as they open, and the tips are tinged with green, but their shape is slightly thinner than that of Polygonatum odoratum.

Polygonatum odoratum flowers from May to June. Its stalks are obliquely ascending, with a short base fused to the stem, and gently curved in an arc due to the weight of the flower. The flowers are 17-21 mm long, with a short stalk of about 0.5 mm at the base. The tip is shallowly 6-lobed, the lobes do not curve back, and there are small projections at the tips. The inner surface is covered with short hairs. There are 6 stamens, the filaments are covered with long, soft hairs and fused to the corolla up to the middle. The pistil's style is hairless, and the tip is not divided.

The flower was specifically designed for pollination by bumblebees!?

What kinds of insects visit these downward-facing flowers? Of these species, the ecology of the flowers of Polygonatum odoratum has been studied in detail (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000; Hirose et al., 2002; Kono et al., 2004).

Bumblebees visit this flower. This is a typical example of how downward-facing flowers are chosen by bees that can firmly cling to them (Tanaka and Hirano, 2000).

Moreover, the bumblebees that visit are often queen bees, and it is believed that this is a major food source for the bumblebee queens before they begin their activity and build their nests.

Why does Polygonatum odoratum produce both male and hermaphroditic flowers on a single stem?

Incidentally, in Polygonatum odoratum, the upper part of a single stem tends to produce male flowers with only stamens, while the lower part produces hermaphroditic flowers with both stamens and pistils. Not only that, but the size of the flowers themselves also decreases as you go higher up the stem. This change is continuous, and the fruiting rate in nature also decreases as you go higher.

Why are they doing that? It seems like they could produce more fruit if they made all of them into large, hermaphroditic flowers.

There are two main hypotheses for this (Guitián & Medrano, 2001). The first is that bumblebees visit the lower flowers first, so their own pollen gets mixed in, reducing the proportion of pollen from other individuals. Polygonatum odoratum has a characteristic called "self-incompatibility," meaning it cannot produce fruit with its own pollen. As the plant gets higher up, the probability of fruit formation decreases, so the higher up the plant simply doesn't produce pistils at all.

The second reason is that, given the limited amount of nutrients that can be absorbed, nutrients are supplied from the bottom up, leaving insufficient nutrients at the top, so only stamens are produced. If pistils were produced, the fruit would then develop, and a lot of nutrients would need to be transferred to the seeds so that they can survive on their own. However, if only stamens are produced, then pollen production is all that is required. It is thought that either or both of these reasons are the cause.

However, if that's the case, then why not just not produce flowers in the first place? This raises another question, but possible reasons for not doing so include: (1) producing more flowers makes the entire inflorescence more conspicuous and attracts bumblebees; (2) producing extra flowers so that it's okay if the flowers are pollinated but don't produce fruit properly, even if it results in a "miscarriage"; (3) producing extra flowers in advance so that a large amount of fruit can be produced in years when a lot of nutrients are stored; and (4) sometimes wanting to increase the amount of pollen itself (to increase the function of the male) for some reason.

Are there differences in pollination methods among the various varieties of Polygonatum odoratum around the world?

Although they belong to the same species, Polygonatum odoratum var. odoratum, which is widely distributed from Europe to Asia (Guitián & Medrano, 2001), and Polygonatum odoratum var. maximowiczii, which is distributed in northern Eurasia including Hokkaido and northern Honshu in Japan, have also been studied in detail (Harada et al., 2007), and it is thought that similar phenomena are occurring.

The types of bumblebees that visit Polygonatum odoratum differ from those that visit Polygonatum odoratum (Hirose et al., 2002; Harada et al., 2007), and this may be related to the fact that the flowers are larger than those of Polygonatum odoratum.

Are the fruits berries and dispersed by birds?

The fruit, common to all species in the Polygonatum genus, is a berry. A berry is a fruit in which at least part of the pericarp is fleshy or juicy.

The berries of Polygonatum odoratum are spherical, 1 cm in diameter, and black in color. The seeds are ovate, 3.5 mm long.

The berries of Polygonatum odoratum are spherical, 7-10 mm in diameter, and bluish-black in color. The seeds are ovoid, 3 mm long.

The berries of Polygonatum odoratum are spherical, bluish-black, and 8-12 mm in diameter.

The fruit contains many small seeds. Herbaceous berries with such small seeds may rely on being eaten by omnivorous carnivores such as raccoons, bears, and martens for seed dispersal, and there are records of raccoons actually using them (Takatsuki, 2018).

However, given its coloration, it is unlikely that seed dispersal relies solely on mammals with underdeveloped color vision, suggesting that birds are the primary source of seed dispersal (Ueda & Noma, 1999). Studies in the United States have confirmed that Polygonatum species are eaten by birds (Johnson et al., 1985). In the future, understanding which birds consume Polygonatum species in Japan will help determine its distribution.

References

Guitián, J., Guitián, P., & Medrano, M. 2001. Causes of fruit set variation in Polygonatum odoratum (Liliaceae). Plant Biology 3(6): 637-641. ISSN: 1435-8603, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2001-19369

Harada, J., Sato, M., & Konno, Y. 2007. Fruiting rate of the forest perennial herb Polygonatum odoratum in residual agricultural forests and their surrounding areas. Bulletin of Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine 28: 41-46. ISSN: 1348-5261, http://id.nii.ac.jp/1588/00001812/

Hirose, Tomoyuki; Hiei, Kayako; and Ohara, Masaru. 2002. Quantitative evaluation of population isolation on the genetic composition of herbaceous plant populations growing in the headwaters of the Tama River: Reproductive ecology of Polygonatum odoratum. Tokyu Environmental Purification Foundation Research Grant, Academic Research 30(215): 8-37. https://foundation.tokyu.co.jp/history/academic/project/215/

Johnson, RA, Willson, MF, Thompson, JN, & Bertin, RI 1985. Nutritional values of wild fruits and consumption by migrant frugivorous birds. Ecology 66(3): 819-827. https://doi.org/10.2307/1940543

Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association. 2018. Kanagawa Prefecture Flora 2018 (Electronic Edition). Kanagawa Prefecture Flora Survey Association, Odawara. 1803pp. ISBN: 9784991053726

Kitamura, Shiro, Murata, Gen, and Hori, Masaru. 1957. Illustrated Flora of Japan in Color: Herbaceous Plants, Vol. 1, Revised Edition. Hoikusha, Osaka. 297pp. ISBN: 9784586300150

Kohno, S., Ohara, M., Tamura, M., & Hirose, T. 2004. Polygonatum odoratum. pp. 57-64. In: Kohno, S. (ed.). Illustrated Guide to Plant Life History II: Spring Plants, No. 2. Hokkaido University Press, Sapporo. 109pp. ISBN: 9784832913813

Takatsuki, Shigeki. 2018. Characteristics of fruits used by raccoons—a review. Mammalian Science 58(2): 237-246. https://doi.org/10.11238/mammalianscience.58.237

Tanaka, Hajime & Hirano, Takahisa. 2000. The Face of Flowers: Wisdom for Bearing Fruit. Yama-kei Publishers, Tokyo. 191pp. ISBN: 9784635063043

Tanaka, Koji. 1995. Herbal Health Methods: Effectiveness and Usage at a Glance. Kodansha, Tokyo. 123pp. ISBN: 9784061953727

Ueda, Keisuke & Noma, Naohiko. 1999. What carries "grass seeds" in the forest? In: Ueda, Keisuke (Ed.), Seed Dispersal: The Evolution of Mutual Aid Vol. 1 Seeds Carried by Birds (pp. 76-85). Tsukiji Shokan. ISBN: 9784806711926

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This article is a significantly expanded and revised version of content previously included in the following book.